Chapter 4

Econometrics

Dr. A. PHILIP AROKIADOSS

Assistant Professor
Department of Statistics
St. Joseph’s College (Autonomous)
Tiruchirappalli-620 002.

1
Basic Econometrics

Introduction:
What is
Econometrics?

2
Introduction
What is Econometrics?
 Definition 1: Economic Measurement
 Definition 2: Application of the
mathematical statistics to economic data
in order to lend empirical support to the
economic mathematical models and
obtain numerical results (Gerhard Tintner,
1968)

3
Introduction
What is Econometrics?
 Definition 3: The quantitative
analysis of actual economic phenomena
based on concurrent development of
theory and observation, related by
appropriate methods of inference
(P.A.Samuelson, T.C.Koopmans and
J.R.N.Stone, 1954)

4
Introduction
What is Econometrics?
 Definition 4: The social science
which applies economics, mathematics
and statistical inference to the analysis of
economic phenomena (By Arthur S.
Goldberger, 1964)
 Definition 5: The empirical
determination of economic laws (By H.
Theil, 1971)

5
Introduction
What is Econometrics?
 Definition 6: A conjunction of
economic theory and actual
measurements, using the theory and
technique of statistical inference as a
bridge pier (By T.Haavelmo, 1944)
 And the others

6
Economic Mathematical
Theory Economics

Econometrics

Economic Mathematic
Statistics Statistics
7
Introduction
Why a separate
discipline?
 Economic theory makes statements
that are mostly qualitative in nature,
while econometrics gives empirical
content to most economic theory
 Mathematical economics is to
express economic theory in
mathematical form without empirical
verification of the theory, while
econometrics is mainly interested in the
later
8
Introduction
Why a separate discipline?
 Economic Statistics is mainly
concerned with collecting, processing and
presenting economic data. It does not
being concerned with using the collected
data to test economic theories
 Mathematical statistics provides
many of tools for economic studies, but
econometrics supplies the later with
many special methods of quantitative
analysis based on economic data
9
Economic Mathematical
Theory Economics

Econometrics

Economic Mathematic
Statistics Statistics
10
Introduction
Methodology of
Econometrics
(1) Statement of theory or
hypothesis:

Keynes stated: ”Consumption

increases as income increases, but
not as much as the increase in
income”. It means that “The
marginal propensity to consume
(MPC) for a unit change in
income is grater than zero but less
than unit”
11
Introduction
Methodology of
Econometrics
(2) Specification of the
mathematical model of the
theory
Y = ß1+ ß2X ; 0 < ß2< 1
Y= consumption expenditure
X= income
ß1 and ß2 are parameters; ß1 is
intercept, and ß2 is slope coefficients

12
Introduction
Methodology of
Econometrics
(3) Specification of the
econometric model of the
theory
Y = ß1+ ß2X + u ; 0 < ß2< 1;
Y = consumption expenditure;
X = income;
ß1 and ß2 are parameters; ß1is
intercept and ß2 is slope coefficients;
u is disturbance term or error term. It
is a random or stochastic variable
13
Introduction
Methodology of
Econometrics

(4) Obtaining Data

(See Table 1.1, page 6)

Y= Personal consumption
expenditure
X= Gross Domestic Product
all in Billion US Dollars

14
Introduction
Methodology of
Econometrics
(4) Obtaining Data
Year X Y

1980 2447.1 3776.3

1981 2476.9 3843.1
1982 2503.7 3760.3
1983 2619.4 3906.6
1984 2746.1 4148.5
1985 2865.8 4279.8
1986 2969.1 4404.5
1987 3052.2 4539.9
1988 3162.4 4718.6
1989 3223.3 4838.0
1990 3260.4 4877.5 15
1991 3240.8 4821.0
 Introduction
Methodology of
Econometrics
(5) Estimating the Econometric
Model
Y^ = - 231.8 + 0.7194 X (1.3.3)
MPC was about 0.72 and it means
that for the sample period when real
income increases 1 USD, led (on
average) real consumption expenditure
increases of about 72 cents

Note: A hat symbol (^) above one

variable will signify an estimator of the
relevant population value 16
 Introduction
Methodology of
Econometrics
(6) Hypothesis Testing
Are the estimates accord with the
expectations of the theory that is being
tested? Is MPC < 1 statistically? If so,
it may support Keynes’ theory.
Confirmation or refutation of
economic theories based on
sample evidence is object of Statistical
Inference (hypothesis testing)
17
 Introduction
Methodology of
Econometrics
(7) Forecasting or Prediction
 With given future value(s) of X, what
is the future value(s) of Y?
 GDP=$6000Bill in 1994, what is the
forecast consumption expenditure?
 Y^= - 231.8+0.7196(6000) = 4084.6
 Income Multiplier M = 1/(1 – MPC)
(=3.57). decrease (increase) of $1 in
investment will eventually lead to
$3.57 decrease (increase) in income

18
 Introduction
Methodology of
Econometrics
(8) Using model for control or
policy purposes
Y=4000= -231.8+0.7194 X  X  5882
MPC = 0.72, an income of $5882 Bill
will produce an expenditure of $4000
Bill. By fiscal and monetary policy,
Government can manipulate the
control variable X to get the desired
level of target variable Y
19
 Introduction
Methodology of
Econometrics
Figure 1.4: Anatomy of economic
modelling
• 1) Economic Theory
• 2) Mathematical Model of Theory
• 3) Econometric Model of Theory
• 4) Data
• 5) Estimation of Econometric Model
• 6) Hypothesis Testing
• 7) Forecasting or Prediction
• 8) Using the Model for control or policy
purposes
20
Economic Theory

Mathematic Model Econometric Model Data Collection

Estimation

Hypothesis Testing
Application
in control or
Forecasting policy
studies
21
Basic Econometrics
Chapter 1:
THE NATURE OF
REGRESSION
ANALYSIS

22
1-1. Historical origin of the term
“Regression”
 The term REGRESSION was
introduced by Francis Galton
 Tendency for tall parents to have tall
children and for short parents to have
short children, but the average height
of children born from parents of a
given height tended to move (or
regress) toward the average height in
the population as a whole (F. Galton,
“Family Likeness in Stature”)
23
1-1. Historical origin of the term
“Regression”
 Galton’s Law was confirmed by Karl
Pearson: The average height of sons of
a group of tall fathers < their fathers’
height. And the average height of sons
of a group of short fathers > their
fathers’ height. Thus “regressing” tall
and short sons alike toward the average
height of all men. (K. Pearson and A.
Lee, “On the law of Inheritance”)
 By the words of Galton, this was
“Regression to mediocrity”
24
1-2. Modern Interpretation of
Regression Analysis
 The modern way in interpretation of
Regression: Regression Analysis is
concerned with the study of the
dependence of one variable (The
Dependent Variable), on one or more
other variable(s) (The Explanatory
Variable), with a view to estimating
and/or predicting the (population)
mean or average value of the former in
term of the known or fixed (in
repeated sampling) values of the latter.
 Examples: (pages 16-19) 25
Dependent Variable Y; Explanatory Variable Xs
1. Y = Son’s Height; X = Father’s Height
2. Y = Height of boys; X = Age of boys
3. Y = Personal Consumption Expenditure
X = Personal Disposable Income
4. Y = Demand; X = Price
5. Y = Rate of Change of Wages
X = Unemployment Rate
6. Y = Money/Income; X = Inflation Rate
7. Y = % Change in Demand; X = % Change in the
advertising budget
8. Y = Crop yield; Xs = temperature, rainfall, sunshine,
fertilizer

26
 1-3. Statistical vs.
Deterministic
Relationships
 In regression analysis we are concerned
with STATISTICAL DEPENDENCE
among variables (not Functional or
Deterministic), we essentially deal with
RANDOM or STOCHASTIC variables
(with the probability distributions)

27
1-4. Regression vs. Causation:
Regression does not necessarily imply
causation. A statistical relationship
cannot logically imply causation. “A
statistical relationship, however strong
and however suggestive, can never
establish causal connection: our ideas
of causation must come from outside
statistics, ultimately from some theory
or other” (M.G. Kendal and A. Stuart,
“The Advanced Theory of Statistics”)
28
 1-5. Regression vs.
Correlation
 Correlation Analysis: the primary objective
is to measure the strength or degree of
linear association between two variables
(both are assumed to be random)
 Regression Analysis: we try to estimate or
predict the average value of one variable
(dependent, and assumed to be stochastic)
on the basis of the fixed values of other
variables (independent, and non-stochastic)

29
1-6. Terminology and Notation
Dependent Variable Explanatory
 Variable(s)

Explained Variable Independent
 Variable(s)
Predictand 
 Predictor(s)
Regressand 
 Regressor(s)

Response Stimulus or control
 variable(s)
Endogenous 
Exogenous(es)
30
1-7. The Nature and Sources
of Data for Econometric
Analysis

1) Types of Data :
 Time series data;
 Cross-sectional data;
 Pooled data

2) The Sources of Data

3) The Accuracy of Data

31
1-8. Summary and Conclusions

1) The key idea behind regression

analysis is the statistic dependence of
one variable on one or more other
variable(s)
2) The objective of regression analysis is
to estimate and/or predict the mean or
average value of the dependent
variable on basis of known (or fixed)
values of explanatory variable(s)

32
1-8. Summary and Conclusions

3) The success of regression depends on

the available and appropriate data
4) The researcher should clearly state the
sources of the data used in the
analysis, their definitions, their
methods of collection, any gaps or
omissions and any revisions in the data

33
Basic Econometrics

Chapter 2:
TWO-VARIABLE
REGRESSION ANALYSIS:
Some basic Ideas

34
 2-1. A Hypothetical Example
 Total population: 60 families
 Y=Weekly family consumption expenditure
 X=Weekly disposable family income
 60 families were divided into 10 groups of
approximately the same income level
(80, 100, 120, 140, 160, 180, 200, 220, 240, 260)

35
2-1. A Hypothetical Example

 Table 2-1 gives the conditional distribution

of Y on the given values of X
 Table 2-2 gives the conditional probabilities
of Y: p(YX)
 Conditional Mean

(or Expectation): E(YX=Xi )

36
 Table 2-2: Weekly family income X ($), and consumption Y ($)

X 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260

Y
Weekly 55 65 79 80 102 110 120 135 137 150
family
consumption 60 70 84 93 107 115 136 137 145 152
expenditure 65 74 90 95 110 120 140 140 155 175
Y ($)
70 80 94 103 116 130 144 152 165 178
75 85 98 108 118 135 145 157 175 180
-- 88 -- 113 125 140 -- 160 189 185
-- -- -- 115 -- -- -- 162 -- 191

Total 325 462 445 707 678 750 685 1043 966 1211

Mean 65 77 89 101 113 125 137 149 161 173

37
2-1. A Hypothetical Example

 Figure 2-1 shows the population

regression line (curve). It is the
regression of Y on X
 Population regression curve is the

locus of the conditional means or

expectations of the dependent variable
for the fixed values of the explanatory
variable X (Fig.2-2)
38
2-2. The concepts of population
regression function (PRF)
 E(YX=X ) = f(Xi) is Population Regression
i
Function (PRF) or
Population Regression (PR)
 In the case of linear function we have
linear population regression function (or
equation or model)
E(YX=Xi ) = f(Xi) = ß1 + ß2Xi

39
2-2. The concepts of population
regression function (PRF)

E(YX=Xi ) = f(Xi) = ß1 + ß2Xi

 ß and ß are regression coefficients, ß is
1 2 1
intercept and ß2 is slope coefficient
 Linearity in the Variables
 Linearity in the Parameters

40
2-4. Stochastic Specification of PRF
U = Y - E(YX=Xi ) or Yi = E(YX=Xi ) + Ui
i
 U = Stochastic disturbance or stochastic error
i
term. It is nonsystematic component
 Component E(YX=X ) is systematic or
i
deterministic. It is the mean consumption
expenditure of all the families with the same
level of income
 The assumption that the regression line
passes through the conditional means of Y
implies that E(UiXi ) = 0
41
2-5. The Significance of the Stochastic

Disturbance Term
U = Stochastic Disturbance Term is a
i
surrogate for all variables that are
omitted from the model but they
collectively affect Y
Many reasons why not include such
variables into the model as follows:

42
2-5. The Significance of the Stochastic

Disturbance Term
Why not include as many as variable into
the model (or the reasons for using ui)
+ Vagueness of theory
+ Unavailability of Data
+ Core Variables vs. Peripheral Variables
+ Intrinsic randomness in human behavior
+ Poor proxy variables
+ Principle of parsimony
+ Wrong functional form
43
2-6. The Sample Regression
Function (SRF)
Table 2-4: A random
sample from the Table 2-5: Another random
sample from the population
population
Y X Y X
------------------ -------------------
70 80 55 80
65 100 88 100
90 120 90 120
95 140 80 140
110 160 118 160
115 180 120 180
120 200 145 200
140 220 135 220
155 240 145 240
150 260 175 260
------------------ --------------------
44
Weekly Consumption
Expenditure (Y)
SRF1

SRF2

Weekly Income (X) 45

2-6. The Sample Regression
Function (SRF)

 Fig.2-3:SRF1 and SRF 2

 Y^ = ^ + ^ X (2.6.1)
i 1 2 i
 Y^ = estimator of E(YX )
i i
 ^ = estimator of 
1 1
 ^ = estimator of 
2 2
 Estimate = A particular numerical value
obtained by the estimator in an application
 SRF in stochastic form: Y = ^ + ^ X + u^
i 1 2 i i
or Yi= Y^i + u^i (2.6.3)
46
2-6. The Sample Regression
Function (SRF)
 Primary objective in regression analysis is
to estimate the PRF Yi= 1 + 2Xi + ui on
the basis of the SRF Yi= ^1 + ^2Xi + ei
and how to construct SRF so that ^1 close
to 1 and ^2 close to 2 as much as
possible
47
2-6. The Sample Regression
Function (SRF)
 Population Regression Function PRF
 Linearity in the parameters
 Stochastic PRF
 Stochastic Disturbance Term u plays a
i
critical role in estimating the PRF
 Sample of observations from
population
 Stochastic Sample Regression Function
SRF used to estimate the PRF
48
2-7. Summary and Conclusions

 The key concept underlying regression

analysis is the concept of the
population regression function (PRF).
 This book deals with linear PRFs:
linear in the unknown parameters.
They may or may not linear in the
variables.

49
 2-7. Summary and Conclusions
 For empirical purposes, it is the stochastic
PRF that matters. The stochastic
disturbance term ui plays a critical role in
estimating the PRF.
 The PRF is an idealized concept, since in
practice one rarely has access to the entire
population of interest. Generally, one has a
sample of observations from population
and use the stochastic sample regression
(SRF) to estimate the PRF.
50
Basic Econometrics

Chapter 3:
TWO-VARIABLE
REGRESSION MODEL:
The problem of Estimation

51
3-1. The method of ordinary
least square (OLS)
 Least-square criterion:
 Minimizing U^2 = (Y – Y^ ) 2
i i i

= (Yi- ^1 - ^2X)2 (3.1.2)

 Normal Equation and solving it
for ^1 and ^2 = Least-square
estimators [See (3.1.6)(3.1.7)]
 Numerical and statistical
properties of OLS are as follows: 52
3-1. The method of ordinary least
square (OLS)
 OLS estimators are expressed solely in terms of
observable quantities. They are point estimators
 The sample regression line passes through
sample means of X and Y
 The mean value of the estimated Y^ is equal to
the mean value of the actual Y: E(Y) = E(Y^)
 The mean value of the residuals U^ is zero:
i
E(u^i )=0
 u^ are uncorrelated with the predicted Y^ and
i i
with Xi : That are u^iY^i = 0; u^iXi = 0
53
 3-2. The assumptions underlying
the method of least squares
 Ass 1: Linear regression model
(in parameters)
 Ass 2: X values are fixed in repeated
sampling
 Ass 3: Zero mean value of u : E(u X )=0
i i i
 Ass 4: Homoscedasticity or equal
variance of ui : Var (uiXi) = 2
[VS. Heteroscedasticity]
 Ass 5: No autocorrelation between the
disturbances: Cov(ui,ujXi,Xj ) = 0
with i # j [VS. Correlation, + or - ] 54
 3-2. The assumptions underlying
the method of least squares
 Ass 6: Zero covariance between ui and Xi
Cov(ui, Xi) = E(ui, Xi) = 0
 Ass 7: The number of observations n must be
greater than the number of parameters
to be estimated
 Ass 8: Variability in X values. They must
not all be the same
 Ass 9: The regression model is correctly
specified
 Ass 10: There is no perfect multicollinearity
between Xs
55
3-3. Precision or standard errors of
least-squares estimates
 In statistics the precision of an
estimate is measured by its standard
error (SE)
 var( ^ ) = 2 / x2 (3.3.1)
2 i
 se(^ ) =  Var(^ ) (3.3.2)
2 2
 var( ^ ) = 2 X2 / n x2 (3.3.3)
1 i i
 se(^ ) =  Var(^ ) (3.3.4)
1 1
 ^ 2 = u^2 / (n - 2) (3.3.5)
i
 ^ =  ^ 2 is standard error of the
estimate 56
3-3. Precision or standard errors of
least-squares estimates
 Features of the variance:
+ var( ^2) is proportional to 2 and
inversely proportional to x2i
+ var( ^1) is proportional to 2 and X2i
but inversely proportional to x2i and the
sample size n.
X
+ cov ( ^1 , ^2) = - var( ^2) shows
the independence between ^1 and ^2
57
3-4. Properties of least-squares
estimators: The Gauss-Markov Theorem
 An OLS estimator is said to be BLUE if :
+ It is linear, that is, a linear function of a
random variable, such as the dependent
variable Y in the regression model
+ It is unbiased , that is, its average or expected
value, E(^2), is equal to the true value 2
+ It has minimum variance in the class of all
such linear unbiased estimators
An unbiased estimator with the least variance is
known as an efficient estimator
58
3-4. Properties of least-squares
estimators: The Gauss-Markov
Theorem

 Gauss- Markov Theorem:

Given the assumptions of the
classical linear regression model,
the least-squares estimators, in
class of unbiased linear estimators,
have minimum variance, that is,
they are BLUE

59
β̂
2

3-5. The coefficient of determination

r2: A measure of “Goodness of fit”
 Yi = Ŷ i + Û i or
 Yi -Y = Ŷ i - Ŷi + Û i or
 ŷ
yi = i + Û i (Note: Y = Ŷ )
Squaring on both side and summing =>
  y 2 = β̂22 x2 +  Û 2 ; or
i i i
 TSS = ESS + RSS

60
3-5. The coefficient of determination r2:
A measure of “Goodness of fit”
 TSS =  y 2 = Total Sum of Squares
i
 ESS =  Y^ i2 = ^22 x2i =
Explained Sum of Squares
 RSS =  u^2I = Residual Sum of
Squares
ESS RSS
1 = -------- + -------- ; or
TSS TSS
RSS RSS
1= r2 + ------- ; or r2 = 1 - ------- 61
TSS TSS
3-5. The coefficient of determination r2:
A measure of “Goodness of fit”
 r2 = ESS/TSS
is coefficient of determination, it measures
the proportion or percentage of the total
variation in Y explained by the regression
Model
 0  r2  1;
 r =  r2 is sample correlation
coefficient
 Some properties of r

62
3-5. The coefficient of determination r2:
A measure of “Goodness of fit”

3-6. A numerical Example (pages 80-83)

3-7. Illustrative Examples (pages 83-85)
3-8. Coffee demand Function
3-9. Monte Carlo Experiments (page 85)
3-10. Summary and conclusions (pages
86-87)

63
Basic Econometrics

Chapter 4:
THE NORMALITY
ASSUMPTION:
Classical Normal Linear
Regression Model
(CNLRM)

64
4-2.The normality assumption
 CNLR assumes that each u i is distributed
normally u i  N(0, 2) with:
Mean = E(u i) = 0 Ass 3
Variance = E(u2i) = 2 Ass 4
Cov(u i , u j ) = E(u i , u j) = 0 (i#j) Ass 5
 Note: For two normally distributed variables, the
zero covariance or correlation means
independence of them, so u i and u j are not only
uncorrelated but also independently distributed.
Therefore u i  NID(0, 2) is Normal and
Independently Distributed
65
4-2.The normality assumption
 Why the normality assumption?
(1) With a few exceptions, the distribution of sum
of a large number of independent and
identically distributed random variables tends
to a normal distribution as the number of
such variables increases indefinitely
(2) If the number of variables is not very large or
they are not strictly independent, their sum
may still be normally distributed

66
4-2.The normality assumption
 Why the normality assumption?
(3) Under the normality assumption
for ui , the OLS estimators ^1 and
^2 are also normally distributed
(4) The normal distribution is a
comparatively simple distribution
involving only two parameters
(mean and variance)

67
4-3. Properties of OLS
estimators under the normality
assumption
 With the normality assumption the
OLS estimators ^1 , ^2 and ^2 have
the following properties:
1. They are unbiased
2. They have minimum variance.
Combined 1 and 2, they are efficient
estimators
3. Consistency, that is, as the sample size
increases indefinitely, the estimators
converge to their true population
values
68
4-3. Properties of OLS estimators
under the normality assumption
4. ^1 is normally distributed 
N(1, ^12)
And Z = (^1- 1)/ ^1 is  N(0,1)
5. ^2 is normally distributed N(2 ,^22)
And Z = (^2- 2)/ ^2 is  N(0,1)
6. (n-2) ^2/ 2 is distributed as the
2(n-2)
69
4-3. Properties of OLS estimators
under the normality assumption
7. ^1 and ^2 are distributed
independently of ^2. They have
minimum variance in the entire class
of unbiased estimators, whether linear
or not. They are best unbiased
estimators (BUE)
8. Let ui is  N(0, 2 ) then Yi is 
N[E(Yi); Var(Yi)] = N[1+ 2X i ; 2]

70
 Some last points of chapter 4

4-4. The method of Maximum likelihood (ML)

 ML is point estimation method with some
stronger theoretical properties than OLS
(Appendix 4.A on pages 110-114)
The estimators of coefficients ’s by OLS and ML are
 identical. They are true estimators of the ’s
 (ML estimator of 2) = u^ 2/n (is biased estimator)
i
 (OLS estimator of 2) = u^ 2/n-2 (is unbiased
i
estimator)
 When sample size (n) gets larger the two estimators
tend to be equal

71
Some last points of chapter 4

4-5. Probability distributions related

to the Normal Distribution: The t, 2,
and F distributions
See section (4.5) on pages 107-108
with 8 theorems and Appendix A, on
pages 755-776
4-6. Summary and Conclusions
See 10 conclusions on pages 109-110
72
Basic Econometrics

Chapter 5:
TWO-VARIABLE
REGRESSION:
Interval Estimation
and Hypothesis Testing

73
Chapter 5 TWO-VARIABLE REGRESSION:
Interval Estimation and Hypothesis Testing

5-1. Statistical Prerequisites

 See Appendix A with key concepts
such as probability, probability
distributions, Type I Error, Type II
Error,level of significance, power of a
statistic test, and confidence interval

74
 Chapter 5 TWO-VARIABLE REGRESSION:
Interval Estimation and Hypothesis Testing

5-2. Interval estimation: Some basic Ideas

 How “close” is, say, ^2 to 2 ?
Pr (^2 -   2  ^2 + ) = 1 -  (5.2.1)
 Random interval ^2 -   2  ^2 + 
if exits, it known as confidence interval
 ^ -  is lower confidence limit
2

 ^ +  is upper confidence limit

2

75
 Chapter 5 TWO-VARIABLE REGRESSION:
Interval Estimation and Hypothesis Testing

5-2. Interval estimation: Some basic Ideas

 (1 - ) is confidence coefficient,
0 <  < 1 is significance level
 Equation (5.2.1) does not mean that the Pr of
2 lying between the given limits is (1 - ), but
the Pr of constructing an interval that contains
2 is (1 - )
 (^
2 -  , ^2 + ) is random interval
76
 Chapter 5 TWO-VARIABLE REGRESSION:
Interval Estimation and Hypothesis Testing

5-2. Interval estimation: Some basic Ideas

 In repeated sampling, the intervals will
enclose, in (1 - )*100 of the cases, the true
value of the parameters
 For a specific sample, can not say that the
probability is (1 - ) that a given fixed interval
includes the true 2
 If the sampling or probability distributions of
the estimators are known, one can make
confidence interval statement like (5.2.1)
77
 Chapter 5 TWO-VARIABLE REGRESSION:
Interval Estimation and Hypothesis Testing

5-3. Confidence Intervals for Regression

Coefficients
 Z= (^2 - 2)/se(^2) = (^2 - 2) x2i / ~N(0,1)
(5.3.1)
We did not know  and have to use ^ instead,
so:
 t= (^2 - 2)/se(^2) = (^2 - 2) x2i /^ ~ t(n-2)
(5.3.2)
 => Interval for 2
Pr [ -t /2  t  t /2] = 1-  (5.3.3)
78
 Chapter 5 TWO-VARIABLE REGRESSION:
Interval Estimation and Hypothesis Testing

5-3. Confidence Intervals for Regression

Coefficients
 Or confidence interval for 2 is
Pr [^2-t /2se(^2)  2  ^2+t /2se(^2)] = 1- 
(5.3.5)
 Confidence Interval for 1
Pr [^1-t /2se(^1)  1  ^1+t /2se(^1)] = 1- 
(5.3.7)
79
 Chapter 5 TWO-VARIABLE REGRESSION:
Interval Estimation and Hypothesis Testing

5-4. Confidence Intervals for 2

Pr [(n-2)^2/ 2/2  2 (n-2)^2/ 21- /2] = 1- 

(5.4.3)
 The interpretation of this interval is: If we
establish (1- ) confidence limits on 2 and
if we maintain a priori that these limits
will include true 2, we shall be right in
the long run (1- ) percent of the time
80
 Chapter 5 TWO-VARIABLE REGRESSION:
Interval Estimation and Hypothesis Testing

5-5. Hypothesis Testing: General Comments

 The stated hypothesis is known as the
null hypothesis: Ho
 The H is tested against and alternative
o
hypothesis: H1

5-6. Hypothesis Testing: The confidence

interval approach
One-sided or one-tail Test
H0: 2  * versus H1: 2 > *
81
 Chapter 5 TWO-VARIABLE REGRESSION:
Interval Estimation and Hypothesis Testing
Two-sided or two-tail Test
H0: 2 = * versus H1: 2 # *
^2 - t /2se(^2)  2  ^2 + t /2se(^2) values
of 2 lying in this interval are plausible under Ho
with 100*(1- )% confidence.
 If  lies in this region we do not reject H (the
2 o
finding is statistically insignificant)
 If  falls outside this interval, we reject H (the
2 o
finding is statistically significant)
82
 Chapter 5 TWO-VARIABLE REGRESSION:
Interval Estimation and Hypothesis Testing

5-7. Hypothesis Testing:

The test of significance approach
A test of significance is a procedure by which
sample results are used to verify the truth or
falsity of a null hypothesis
 Testing the significance of regression
coefficient: The t-test
Pr [^2-t /2se(^2)  2  ^2+t /2se(^2)]= 1- 
(5.7.2)
83
 Chapter 5 TWO-VARIABLE REGRESSION:
Interval Estimation and Hypothesis Testing
 5-7. Hypothesis Testing: The test of
significance approach
 Table 5-1: Decision Rule for t-test of significance

Type of H0 H1 Reject H0
Hypothesis if
Two-tail 2 = 2* 2 # 2* |t| > t/2,df
Right-tail 2  2* 2 > 2* t > t,df
Left-tail 2 2* 2 < 2* t < - t,df
84
Chapter 5 TWO-VARIABLE REGRESSION:
Interval Estimation and Hypothesis Testing
 5-7. Hypothesis Testing: The test of
significance approach
Testing the significance of 2 : The 2 Test
Under the Normality assumption we have:
^2
2 = (n-2) ------- ~ 2 (n-2) (5.4.1)
2
From (5.4.2) and (5.4.3) on page 520 =>

85
Chapter 5 TWO-VARIABLE REGRESSION:
Interval Estimation and Hypothesis Testing
 5-7. Hypothesis Testing: The test of
significance approach
 Table 5-2: A summary of the 2 Test

H0 H1 Reject H0 if
2 = 20 2 > 20 Df.(^2)/ 20 > 2 ,df
2 = 20 2 < 20 Df.(^2)/ 20 < 2(1-),df
2 = 20 2 # 20 Df.(^2)/ 20 > 2/2,df
or < 2 (1-/2), df
86
Chapter 5 TWO-VARIABLE REGRESSION:
Interval Estimation and Hypothesis Testing

5-8. Hypothesis Testing:

Some practical aspects
1) The meaning of “Accepting” or
“Rejecting” a Hypothesis
2) The Null Hypothesis and the Rule of
Thumb
3) Forming the Null and Alternative
Hypotheses
4) Choosing , the Level of Significance
87
Chapter 5 TWO-VARIABLE REGRESSION:
Interval Estimation and Hypothesis Testing

5-8. Hypothesis Testing:

Some practical aspects
5) The Exact Level of Significance:
The p-Value [See page 132]
132
6) Statistical Significance versus
Practical Significance
7) The Choice between Confidence-
Interval and Test-of-Significance
Approaches to Hypothesis Testing
88
[Warning: Read carefully pages 117-134 ]
 Chapter 5 TWO-VARIABLE REGRESSION:
Interval Estimation and Hypothesis Testing

5-9. Regression Analysis and Analysis

of Variance
 TSS = ESS + RSS
 F=[MSS of ESS]/[MSS of RSS] =

= 2^2 xi2/ ^2 (5.9.1)

 If u are normally distributed; H :  = 0
i 0 2
then F follows the F distribution with 1
and n-2 degree of freedom
89
Chapter 5 TWO-VARIABLE REGRESSION:
Interval Estimation and Hypothesis Testing
5-9.Regression Analysis and
Analysis of Variance
 F provides a test statistic to test the
null hypothesis that true 2 is zero by
compare this F ratio with the F-critical
obtained from F tables at the chosen
level of significance, or obtain the p-
value of the computed F statistic to
make decision
90
 Chapter 5 TWO-VARIABLE REGRESSION:
Interval Estimation and Hypothesis Testing
 5-9. Regression Analysis and Analysis
of Variance
 Table 5-3. ANOVA for two-variable regression model

Source of Sum of square ( SS) Degree of Mean sum of

Variation Freedom - square ( MSS)
(Df)

ESS (due to y^i2 = 2^2 xi2 1 2^2 xi2

regression)
RSS (due to u^i2 n-2 u^i2 /(n-2)=^2
residuals)
TSS y i2 n-1

91
 Chapter 5 TWO-VARIABLE REGRESSION:
Interval Estimation and Hypothesis Testing

5-10. Application of Regression

Analysis: Problem of Prediction

 By the data of Table 3-2, we obtained the

sample regression (3.6.2) :
Y^i = 24.4545 + 0.5091Xi , where
Y^i is the estimator of true E(Yi)
 There are two kinds of prediction as
follows:
92
 Chapter 5 TWO-VARIABLE REGRESSION:
Interval Estimation and Hypothesis Testing

5-10. Application of Regression

Analysis: Problem of Prediction
 Mean prediction: Prediction of the
conditional mean value of Y
corresponding to a chosen X, say X0, that
is the point on the population regression
line itself (see pages 137-138 for details)
 Individual prediction: Prediction of an
individual Y value corresponding to X0
(see pages 138-139 for details) 93
 Chapter 5 TWO-VARIABLE REGRESSION:
Interval Estimation and Hypothesis Testing

5-11. Reporting the results of

regression analysis

 An illustration:

Y^I= 24.4545 + 0.5091Xi

(5.1.1)
Se = (6.4138) (0.0357) r2= 0.9621
t = (3.8128) (14.2405) df= 8
P = (0.002517) (0.000000289) F 1,2=2202.87
94
 Chapter 5 TWO-VARIABLE REGRESSION:
Interval Estimation and Hypothesis Testing
5-12. Evaluating the results of regression
analysis:
 Normality Test: The Chi-Square (2)
Goodness of fit Test
2N-1-k =  (Oi – Ei)2/Ei
(5.12.1)
Oi is observed residuals (u^i) in interval i
Ei is expected residuals in interval i
N is number of classes or groups; k is number of
parameters to be estimated. If p-value of
obtaining 2N-1-k is high (or 2N-1-k is small) => 95
 Chapter 5 TWO-VARIABLE REGRESSION:
Interval Estimation and Hypothesis Testing
5-12. Evaluating the results of regression
analysis:
 Normality Test: The Chi-Square (2)
Goodness of fit Test
H0: ui is normally distributed
H1: ui is un-normally distributed
Calculated-2N-1-k =  (Oi – Ei)2/Ei (5.12.1)
Decision rule:
Calculated-2N-1-k > Critical-2N-1-k then H0 can
be rejected
96
 Chapter 5 TWO-VARIABLE REGRESSION:
Interval Estimation and Hypothesis Testing

5-12. Evaluating the results of regression

analysis:
The Jarque-Bera (JB) test of normality
This test first computes the Skewness (S)
and Kurtosis (K) and uses the following
statistic:
JB = n [S2/6 + (K-3)2/24] (5.12.2)
Mean= xbar = xi/n ; SD2 = (xi-xbar)2/(n-1)
S=m3/m2 3/2 ; K=m4/m22 ; mk= (xi-xbar)k/n
97
Chapter 5 TWO-VARIABLE REGRESSION:
Interval Estimation and Hypothesis Testing

5-12. (Continued)
Under the null hypothesis H0 that the
residuals are normally distributed
Jarque and Bera show that in large
sample (asymptotically) the JB statistic
given in (5.12.12) follows the Chi-
Square distribution with 2 df. If the p-
value of the computed Chi-Square
statistic in an application is sufficiently
low, one can reject the hypothesis that
the residuals are normally distributed.
But if p-value is reasonable high, one
does not reject the normality 98
 Chapter 5 TWO-VARIABLE REGRESSION:
Interval Estimation and Hypothesis Testing

5-13. Summary and Conclusions

1. Estimation and Hypothesis testing
constitute the two main branches of
classical statistics
2. Hypothesis testing answers this
question: Is a given finding compatible
with a stated hypothesis or not?
3. There are two mutually complementary
approaches to answering the preceding
question: Confidence interval and test of
significance.
99
 Chapter 5 TWO-VARIABLE REGRESSION:
Interval Estimation and Hypothesis Testing

5-13. Summary and Conclusions

4. Confidence-interval approach has a

specified probability of including
within its limits the true value of the
unknown parameter. If the null-
hypothesized value lies in the
confidence interval, H0 is not
rejected, whereas if it lies outside this
interval, H0 can be rejected
100
 Chapter 5 TWO-VARIABLE REGRESSION:
Interval Estimation and Hypothesis Testing
5-13. Summary and Conclusions
5. Significance test procedure develops a
test statistic which follows a well-defined
probability distribution (like normal, t, F,
or Chi-square). Once a test statistic is
computed, its p-value can be easily
obtained.

The p-value The p-value of a test is the

lowest significance level, at which we
would reject H0. It gives exact probability
of obtaining the estimated test statistic
under H0. If p-value is small, one can
reject H0, but if it is large one may not101
 Chapter 5 TWO-VARIABLE REGRESSION:
Interval Estimation and Hypothesis Testing

5-13. Summary and Conclusions

6. Type I error is the error of rejecting
a true hypothesis. Type II error is
the error of accepting a false
hypothesis. In practice, one should
be careful in fixing the level of
significance , the probability of
committing a type I error (at
arbitrary values such as 1%, 5%,
10%). It is better to quote the p-
value of the test statistic.
102
 Chapter 5 TWO-VARIABLE REGRESSION:
Interval Estimation and Hypothesis Testing

5-13. Summary and Conclusions

7. This chapter introduced the

normality test to find out whether
ui follows the normal distribution.
Since in small samples, the t,
F,and Chi-square tests require the
normality assumption, it is
important that this assumption
be checked formally
103
 Chapter 5 TWO-VARIABLE REGRESSION:
Interval Estimation and Hypothesis Testing

5-13. Summary and

Conclusions (ended)

8. If the model is deemed

practically adequate, it may be
used for forecasting purposes.
But should not go too far out of
the sample range of the
regressor values. Otherwise,
forecasting errors can increase
dramatically. 104
Basic Econometrics

Chapter 6
EXTENSIONS OF THE
TWO-VARIABLE LINEAR
REGRESSION MODEL

105
Chapter 6
EXTENSIONS OF THE TWO-VARIABLE LINEAR
REGRESSION MODELS

6-1. Regression through the origin

 The SRF form of regression:
 Y = ^ X + u^ (6.1.5)
i 2 i i

 Comparison two types of regressions:
* Regression through-origin model and
* Regression with intercept 106

Chapter 6
EXTENSIONS OF THE TWO-VARIABLE LINEAR
REGRESSION MODELS

6-1. Regression through the origin

Comparison two types of regressions:

^2 = XiYi/X2i (6.1.6) O

^2 = xiyi/x2i (3.1.6) I
var(^2) = 2/X2i (6.1.7) O
var(^2) = 2/x2i (3.3.1) I
^2 = u^i)2/(n-1) (6.1.8) O 107
2 2
Chapter 6
EXTENSIONS OF THE TWO-VARIABLE LINEAR
REGRESSION MODELS
6-1. Regression through the origin
 r2 for regression through-origin model
Raw r2 = (XiYi)2 /X2iY2i (6.1.9)
 Note: Without very strong a priory expectation, well
advise is sticking to the conventional, intercept-
present model. If intercept equals to zero
statistically, for practical purposes we have a
regression through the origin. If in fact there is an
intercept in the model but we insist on fitting a
regression through the origin, we would be
committing a specification error 108
 Chapter 6
EXTENSIONS OF THE TWO-VARIABLE
LINEAR REGRESSION MODELS

6-1. Regression through the origin

 Illustrative Examples:
1) Capital Asset Pricing Model - CAPM (page 156)
2) Market Model (page 157)
3) The Characteristic Line of Portfolio Theory
(page
159)

109
Chapter 6
EXTENSIONS OF THE TWO-VARIABLE LINEAR
REGRESSION MODELS
6-2. Scaling and units of measurement

 Let Yi = ^1 + ^2Xi + u^ i (6.2.1)

 Define Y*i=w 1 Y i and X*i=w 2 X i then:
 ^2 = (w1/w2)^2
(6.2.15)
 ^1 = w1^1
(6.2.16)
 *^2 = w12^2
(6.2.17)
 Var(^1) = w21 Var(^1) (6.2.18) 110
 Chapter 6
EXTENSIONS OF THE TWO-VARIABLE
LINEAR REGRESSION MODELS
6-2. Scaling and units of measurement
 From one scale of measurement, one can derive the results
based on another scale of measurement. If w1= w2 the
intercept and standard error are both multiplied by w1. If
w2=1 and scale of Y changed by w1, then all coefficients and
standard errors are all multiplied by w1. If w1=1 and scale of
X changed by w2, then only slope coefficient and its standard
error are multiplied by 1/w2. Transformation from (Y,X) to
(Y*,X*) scale does not affect the properties of OLS
Estimators 111

6-3. Functional form of regression model

 The log-linear model

 Semi-log model
 Reciprocal model

112
6-4. How to measure elasticity
The log-linear model
 Exponential regression model:

Yi= 1Xi e u i (6.4.1)
By taking log to the base e of both side:
 lnYi = ln1 +2lnXi + ui , by setting ln1 = 
 lnYi =  +2lnXi + ui (6.4.3)
(log-log, or double-log, or log-linear model)
This can be estimated by OLS by letting
 Y*i =  +2X*i + ui , where Y*i=lnYi, X*i=lnXi ;
 2 measures the ELASTICITY of Y respect to X, that is,
113
percentage change in Y for a given (small) percentage
6-4. How to measure elasticity

The log-linear model

The elasticity E of a variable Y with
respect to variable X is defined as:
E=dY/dX=(% change in Y)/(% change in X)
~ [(Y/Y) x 100] / [(X/X) x100]=
= (Y/X)x (X/Y) = slope x (X/Y)
 An illustrative example: The coffee
demand function (pages 167-168) 114
 6-5. Semi-log model:
Log-lin and Lin-log Models

 How to measure the growth rate: The log-lin model

 Y t = Y0 (1+r) t
(6.5.1)
 lnYt = lnY0 + t ln(1+r)
(6.5.2)
 lnYt = + 2t , called constant growth model (6.5.5)
where 1 = lnY0 ; 2 = ln(1+r)
 lnYt = + 2t + ui (6.5.6)
 It is Semi-log model, or log-lin model. The slope
coefficient measures the constant proportional or
relative change in Y for a given absolute change in the
value of the regressor (t)
115
 2 = (Relative change in regressand)/(Absolute change
6-5. Semi-log model:
Log-lin and Lin-log Models
 Instantaneous Vs. compound rate of growth
 2 is instantaneous rate of growth
 antilog(2) – 1 is compound rate of growth
The linear trend model
 Yt = + 2t + ut (6.5.9)
 If 2 > there is an upward trend in Y
 If 2 < there is an downward trend in Y
 Note: (i) Cannot compare the r2 values of
models (6.5.5) and (6.5.9) because the
regressands in the two models are different,
(ii) Such models may be appropriate only if a
time series is stationary.
116
 6-5. Semi-log model:
Log-lin and Lin-log Models
 The lin-log model:
 Yi = 1 +2lnXi + ui (6.5.11)
 2 = (Change in Y) / Change in lnX =
(Change in Y)/(Relative change in X) ~
(Y)/(X/X) (6.5.12)
 or Y = 2 (X/X) (6.5.13)
 That is, the absolute change in Y equal
to 2 times the relative change in X.
117
6-6. Reciprocal Models:
Log-lin and Lin-log Models

The reciprocal model:

 Yi = 1 + 2( 1/Xi ) + ui (6.5.14)
 As X increases definitely, the term
2( 1/Xi ) approaches to zero and Yi
approaches the limiting or asymptotic value
1 (See figure 6.5 in page 174)
 An Illustrative example: The Phillips Curve
for the United Kingdom 1950-1966
 118
 6-7. Summary of Functional Forms
Table 6.5 (page 178)

Model Equation Slope = Elasticity =

dY/dX (dY/dX).(X/Y)
Linear Y = X  (X/Y) */
Log-linear lnY = (YX) 
(log-log) lnX

Log-lin lnY = X Y X */

Lin-log Y = lnX 2(1/X) Y) */
Reciprocal Y= - 2(1/X2) - XY) */
X) 119
 6-7. Summary of Functional Forms

 Note: */ indicates that the elasticity

coefficient is variable, depending on the
value taken by X or Y or both. when no X
and Y values are specified, in practice, very
often these elasticities are measured at the
mean values E(X) and E(Y).
-----------------------------------------------
6-8. A note on the stochastic error term
6-9. Summary and conclusions
(pages 179-180) 120
Basic Econometrics

Chapter 7
MULTIPLE REGRESSION
ANALYSIS:
The Problem of Estimation

121
 7-1. The three-Variable Model:
Notation and Assumptions
 Yi = ß1+ ß2X2i + ß3X3i + u i (7.1.1)
 ß , ß are partial regression coefficients
2 3
 With the following assumptions:

+ Zero mean value of U i:: E(u i|X2i,X3i) = 0. i (7.1.2)

+ No serial correlation: Cov(ui,uj) = 0, i # j (7.1.3)
+ Homoscedasticity: Var(u i) = 2 (7.1.4)
+ Cov(ui,X2i) = Cov(ui,X3i) = 0 (7.1.5)
+ No specification bias or model correct specified (7.1.6)
+ No exact collinearity between X variables (7.1.7)
(no multicollinearity in the cases of more explanatory
vars. If there is linear relationship exits, X vars. Are said
to be linearly dependent)
+ Model is linear in parameters 122
 7-2. Interpretation of Multiple
Regression

 E(Yi| X2i ,X3i) = ß1+ ß2X2i + ß3X3i (7.2.1)

 (7.2.1) gives conditional mean or

expected value of Y conditional upon
the given or fixed value of the X2 and
X3

123
7-3. The meaning of partial
regression coefficients
 Yi= ß1+ ß2X2i + ß3X3 +….+ ßsXs+ ui
 ßk measures the change in the mean
value of Y per unit change in Xk,
holding the rest explanatory variables
constant. It gives the “direct” effect of
unit change in Xk on the E(Yi), net of Xj
(j # k)
 How to control the “true” effect of a
unit change in Xk on Y? (read pages
195-197) 124
 7-4. OLS and ML estimation of the
partial regression coefficients
 This section (pages 197-201) provides:
1. The OLS estimators in the case of three-
variable regression
Yi= ß1+ ß2X2i + ß3X3+ ui
2. Variances and standard errors of OLS
estimators
3. 8 properties of OLS estimators (pp 199-201)
4. Understanding on ML estimators

125
7-5. The multiple coefficient of
determination R2 and the multiple
coefficient of correlation R
 This section provides:
1. Definition of R2 in the context of multiple
regression like r2 in the case of two-variable
regression
2. R = R2 is the coefficient of multiple
regression, it measures the degree of
association between Y and all the explanatory
variables jointly
3. Variance of a partial regression coefficient
Var(ß^k) = 2/ x2k (1/(1-R2k)) (7.5.6)
Where ß^k is the partial regression coefficient
of regressor Xk and R2k is the R2 in the
regression of Xk on the rest regressors 126
7-6. Example 7.1: The
expectations-augmented Philips
Curve for the US (1970-1982)

 This section provides an

illustration for the ideas
introduced in the chapter
 Regression Model (7.6.1)
 Data set is in Table 7.1

127
7-7. Simple regression in the
context of multiple regression:
Introduction to specification bias

 This section provides an

understanding on “ Simple
regression in the context of
multiple regression”. It will cause
the specification bias which will be
discussed in Chapter 13

128
7-8. R2 and the Adjusted-R2
 R2 is a non-decreasing function of the number of
explanatory variables. An additional X variable will not
decrease R2
R2= ESS/TSS = 1- RSS/TSS = 1-u^2I / y^2i (7.8.1)
 This will make the wrong direction by adding more
irrelevant variables into the regression and give an idea
for an adjusted-R2 (R bar) by taking account of degree of
freedom
 R2bar= 1- [ u^2I /(n-k)] / [y^2i /(n-1) ] , or (7.8.2)
R2bar= 1- ^2 / S2Y (S2Y is sample variance of Y)
K= number of parameters including intercept term
– By substituting (7.8.1) into (7.8.2) we get
R2bar = 1- (1-R2) (n-1)/(n- k) (7.8.4)
– For k > 1, R2bar < R2 thus when number of X variables
increases R2bar increases less than R2 and R2bar can be 129
negative
7-8. R2 and the Adjusted-R2

 R2 is a non-decreasing function of the number of

explanatory variables. An additional X variable will not
decrease R2
R2= ESS/TSS = 1- RSS/TSS = 1-u^2I / y^2i (7.8.1)
 This will make the wrong direction by adding more
irrelevant variables into the regression and give an idea
for an adjusted-R2 (R bar) by taking account of degree of
freedom
 R2bar= 1- [ u^2I /(n-k)] / [y^2i /(n-1) ] , or (7.8.2)
R2bar= 1- ^2 / S2Y (S2Y is sample variance of Y)
K= number of parameters including intercept term
– By substituting (7.8.1) into (7.8.2) we get
R2bar = 1- (1-R2) (n-1)/(n- k) (7.8.4)
– For k > 1, R2bar < R2 thus when number of X variables
increases R2bar increases less than R2 and R2bar can be 130
negative
7-8. R2 and the Adjusted-R2

 Comparing Two R2 Values:

To compare, the size n and the dependent variable must
be the same
 Example 7-2: Coffee Demand Function Revisited (page
210)
 The “game” of maximizing adjusted-R2:
Choosing the model that gives the highest R2bar may be
dangerous, for in regression our objective is not for that
but for obtaining the dependable estimates of the true
population regression coefficients and draw statistical
inferences about them
 Should be more concerned about the logical or
theoretical relevance of the explanatory variables to the
dependent variable and their statistical significance
131
7-9. Partial Correlation
Coefficients
 This section provides:

1. Explanation of simple and partial

correlation coefficients
2. Interpretation of simple and partial
correlation coefficients
(pages 211-214)

132
7-10. Example 7.3: The Cobb-
Douglas Production function
More on functional form

 Yi = 1X22i X33ieUi (7.10.1)

By log-transform of this model:
 lnYi = ln1 + 2ln X2i + 3ln X3i + Ui
= 0 + 2ln X2i + 3ln X3i +
Ui
(7.10.2)
Data set is in Table 7.3
Report of results is in page 216
133
7-11 Polynomial Regression
Models

 Yi = 0 + 1 Xi + 2 X2i +…+ k Xki + Ui

(7.11.3)
 Example 7.4: Estimating the Total Cost
Function
 Data set is in Table 7.4
 Empirical results is in page 221

--------------------------------------------------------------
 7-12. Summary and Conclusions 134
(page 221)
Basic Econometrics

Chapter 8
MULTIPLE REGRESSION
ANALYSIS:
The Problem of Inference

135
 Chapter 8
MULTIPLE REGRESSION ANALYSIS:
The Problem of Inference
8-3. Hypothesis testing in multiple regression:
Testing hypotheses about an individual partial regression
coefficient
Testing the overall significance of the estimated multiple
regression model, that is, finding out if all the partial slope
coefficients are simultaneously equal to zero
Testing that two or more coefficients are equal to one
another
Testing that the partial regression coefficients satisfy
certain restrictions
Testing the stability of the estimated regression model
over time or in different cross-sectional units
Testing the functional form of regression models

136
Chapter 8
MULTIPLE REGRESSION ANALYSIS:
The Problem of Inference
8-4. Hypothesis testing about individual partial
regression coefficients
With the assumption that u i ~ N(0,2) we can
use t-test to test a hypothesis about any
individual partial regression coefficient.
H0: 2 = 0
H1: 2  0
If the computed t value > critical t value at the
chosen level of significance, we may reject the
null hypothesis; otherwise, we may not reject it

137
Chapter 8
MULTIPLE REGRESSION ANALYSIS:
The Problem of Inference
8-5. Testing the overall significance of a multiple
regression: The F-Test
For Yi = 1 + 2X2i + 3X3i + ........+ kXki + ui
 To test the hypothesis H :  = =....=  = 0 (all
0 2 3 k
slope coefficients are simultaneously zero) versus H1: Not at
all slope coefficients are simultaneously zero,
compute
F=(ESS/df)/(RSS/df)=(ESS/(k-1))/(RSS/(n-k)) (8.5.7)
(k = total number of parameters to be estimated
including intercept)
 If F > F = F(k-1,n-k), reject H0
critical 138
 Otherwise you do not reject it
Chapter 8
MULTIPLE REGRESSION ANALYSIS:
The Problem of Inference
8-5. Testing the overall significance of a multiple
regression
 Alternatively, if the p-value of F obtained from
(8.5.7) is sufficiently low, one can reject H0
 An important relationship between R2 and F:
F=(ESS/(k-1))/(RSS/(n-k)) or
R2/(k-1)
F = ---------------- (8.5.1)
(1-R2) / (n-k)
( see prove on page 249)
139
Chapter 8
MULTIPLE REGRESSION ANALYSIS:
The Problem of Inference
8-5. Testing the overall significance of a multiple
regression in terms of R2

For Yi = 1 + 2X2i + 3X3i + ........+ kXki + ui

 To test the hypothesis H :  =  = .....=  = 0
0 2 3 k
(all slope coefficients are simultaneously zero)
versus H1: Not at all slope coefficients are
simultaneously zero, compute
 F = [R2/(k-1)] / [(1-R2) / (n-k)] (8.5.13) (k = total
number of parameters to be estimated including
intercept)
 If F > F = F  (k-1,n-k), reject H 140
critical 0
Chapter 8
MULTIPLE REGRESSION ANALYSIS:
The Problem of Inference
8-5. Testing the overall significance of a multiple
regression
Alternatively, if the p-value of F obtained from
(8.5.13) is sufficiently low, one can reject H0

The “Incremental” or “Marginal”

contribution of an explanatory
variable:
Let X is the new (additional) term
in the right hand of a regression.
Under the usual assumption of the
normality of ui and the HO:  = 0, it 141
can be shown that the following F
Chapter 8
MULTIPLE REGRESSION ANALYSIS:
The Problem of Inference
8-5. Testing the overall significance of a multiple
regression
[R2new - R2old] / Df1
F com = ---------------------- (8.5.18)
[1 - R2new] / Df2
Where Df1 = number of new regressors
Df2 = n – number of parameters in the
new model
R2new is standing for coefficient of determination of the
new regression (by adding X);
R2old is standing for coefficient of determination of the old 142
regression (before adding X).
Chapter 8
MULTIPLE REGRESSION ANALYSIS:
The Problem of Inference
8-5. Testing the overall significance of a multiple
regression
Decision Rule:
If F com > F  Df1 , Df2 one can reject the Ho that  = 0
and conclude that the addition of X to the model
significantly increases ESS and hence the R2 value
 When to Add a New Variable? If |t| of coefficient
of X > 1 (or F= t 2 of that variable exceeds 1)
 When to Add a Group of Variables? If adding a
group of variables to the model will give F value
greater than 1;
143
Chapter 8
MULTIPLE REGRESSION ANALYSIS:
The Problem of Inference
8-6. Testing the equality of two regression coefficients

Yi = 1 + 2X2i + 3X3i + 4X4i + ui (8.6.1)

Test the hypotheses:
H0: 3 = 4 or 3 - 4 = 0 (8.6.2)
H1: 3  4 or 3 - 4  0
Under the classical assumption it can be
shown:
t = [(^3 - ^4) – (3 - 4)] / se(^3 - ^4)
follows the t distribution with (n-4) df
because (8.6.1) is a four-variable model or,
more generally, with (n-k) df. where k is the
total number of parameters estimated, 144
including intercept term.
Chapter 8
MULTIPLE REGRESSION ANALYSIS:
The Problem of Inference

t = (^3 - ^4) /  [var((^3) + var( ^4) – 2cov(^3, ^4)]

(8.6.5)
Steps for testing:
1. Estimate ^3 and ^4
2. Compute se(^3 - ^4) through (8.6.4)
3. Obtain t- ratio from (8.6.5) with H0: 3 = 4
4. If t-computed > t-critical at designated level of
significance for given df, then reject H0. Otherwise do
not reject it. Alternatively, if the p-value of t statistic
from (8.6.5) is reasonable low, one can reject H0.
 Example 8.2: The cubic cost function revisited
145
Chapter 8
MULTIPLE REGRESSION ANALYSIS:
The Problem of Inference
8-7. Restricted least square: Testing
linear equality restrictions
Yi = 1X22i X33i eui (7.10.1) and (8.7.1)
Y = output
X2 = labor input
X3 = capital input
In the log-form:
lnYi = 0 + 2lnX2i + 3lnX3i + ui (8.7.2)
with the constant return to scale: 2 + 3 = 1

(8.7.3) 146
Chapter 8
MULTIPLE REGRESSION ANALYSIS:
The Problem of Inference
8-7. Restricted least square: Testing
linear equality restrictions
How to test (8.7.3)
 The t Test approach (unrestricted): test of the
hypothesis H0:2 + 3 = 1 can be conducted by t- test:
t = [(^2 + ^3) – (2 + 3)] / se(^2 - ^3) (8.7.4)

 The F Test approach (restricted least square -RLS):

Using, say, 2 = 1-3 and substitute it into (8.7.2) we get:
ln(Yi /X2i) = 0 + 3 ln(X3i /X2i) + ui (8.7.8). Where (Yi /X2i)
is output/labor ratio, and (X3i / X2i) is capital/labor ratio
147
Chapter 8
MULTIPLE REGRESSION ANALYSIS:
The Problem of Inference
8-7. Restricted least square: Testing linear equality
restrictions
u^2UR=RSSUR of unrestricted regression (8.7.2)
and  u^2R = RSSR of restricted regression (8.7.7),
m = number of linear restrictions,
k = number of parameters in the unrestricted regression,
n = number of observations.
R2UR and R2R are R2 values obtained from unrestricted and
restricted regressions respectively. Then
F=[(RSSR – RSSUR)/m]/[RSSUR/(n-k)] =
= [(R2UR – R2R) / m] / [1 – R2UR / (n-k)] (8.7.10)
follows F distribution with m, (n-k) df.
148
Decision rule: If F > F m, n-k , reject H0:2 + 3 = 1
Chapter 8
MULTIPLE REGRESSION ANALYSIS:
The Problem of Inference
8-7. Restricted least square: Testing linear equality
restrictions
 Note: R2UR  R2R (8.7.11)
 and  u^2UR   u^2R (8.7.12)
 Example 8.3: The Cobb-Douglas Production
function for Taiwanese Agricultural Sector,
1958-1972. (pages 259-260). Data in Table 7.3
(page 216)
 General F Testing (page 260)
 Example 8.4: The demand for chicken in the US,
1960-1982. Data in exercise 7.23 (page 228)
149
Chapter 8
MULTIPLE REGRESSION ANALYSIS:
The Problem of Inference
8-8. Comparing two regressions: Testing for structural
stability of regression models

Table 8.8: Personal savings and income data, UK, 1946-

1963 (millions of pounds)
Savings function:
 Reconstruction period:

Y t = 1+ 2X t + U1t (t = 1,2,...,n1)

 Post-Reconstruction period:

Y t = 1 + 2X t + U2t (t = 1,2,...,n2)

Where Y is personal savings, X is personal income, the
us are disturbance terms in the two equations and n1, n2
are the number of observations in the two period 150
Chapter 8
MULTIPLE REGRESSION ANALYSIS:
The Problem of Inference
8-8. Comparing two regressions: Testing for structural
stability of regression models
+ The structural change may mean that the two
intercept are different, or the two slopes are different,
or both are different, or any other suitable combination
of the parameters. If there is no structural change we
can combine all the n1, n2 and just estimate one savings
function as:
Y t = 1 + 2X t + Ut (t = 1,2,...,n1, 1,....n2). (8.8.3)
How do we find out whether there is a structural
change in the savings-income relationship between the
two period? A popular test is Chow-Test, it is simply
the F Test discussed earlier
HO: i = i i Vs H1: i that i  i 151
Chapter 8
MULTIPLE REGRESSION ANALYSIS:
The Problem of Inference
8-8. Comparing two regressions: Testing for structural
stability of regression models
+ The assumptions underlying the Chow
test
u1t and u2t ~ N(0,s2), two error terms are
normally distributed with the same
variance
u1t and u2t are independently distributed
Step 1: Estimate (8.8.3), get RSS, say, S1
with df = (n1+n2 – k); k is number of
parameters estimated )
Step 2: Estimate (8.8.1) and (8.8.2) 152
Chapter 8
MULTIPLE REGRESSION ANALYSIS:
The Problem of Inference
8-8. Comparing two regressions: Testing for structural
stability of regression models
Step 4: Given the assumptions of the
Chow Test, it can be show that
F = [S5 / k] / [S4 / (n1+n2 – 2k)]
(8.8.4)
follows the F distribution with Df = (k,
n1+n2 – 2k)
Decision Rule: If F computed by (8.8.4) >
F- critical at the chosen level of
significance a => reject the hypothesis
that the regression (8.8.1) and (8.8.2) 153
are the same, or reject the hypothesis of
Chapter 8
MULTIPLE REGRESSION ANALYSIS:
The Problem of Inference
8-9. Testing the functional form
of regression:

Choosing between linear and log-linear

regression models: MWD Test
(MacKinnon, White and Davidson)
H0: Linear Model Y is a linear function of
regressors, the Xs;
H1: Log-linear Model Y is a linear function
of logs of regressors, the lnXs; 154
Chapter 8
MULTIPLE REGRESSION ANALYSIS:
The Problem of Inference
8-9. Testing the functional form of regression:

Step 1: Estimate the linear model and

obtain the estimated Y values. Call them
Yf (i.e.,Y^). Take lnYf.
Step 2: Estimate the log-linear model and
obtain the estimated lnY values, call
them lnf (i.e., ln^Y )
Step 3: Obtain Z1 = (lnYf – lnf)
Step 4: Regress Y on Xs and Z1. Reject H0
if the coefficient of Z1 is statistically
significant, by the usual t - test 155

Step 5: Obtain Z = antilog of (lnf – Yf)

Chapter 8
MULTIPLE REGRESSION ANALYSIS:
The Problem of Inference

Example 8.5: The demand for Roses

(page 266-267). Data in exercise 7.20
(page 225)

8-10. Prediction with multiple regression

Follow the section 5-10 and the
illustration in pages 267-268 by using
data set in the Table 8.1 (page 241)

8-11. The troika of hypothesis tests: The

likelihood ratio (LR), Wald (W) and
Lagarange Multiplier (LM) Tests
156