Computer Networks

SYLLABUS
NETWORK

A group of two or more similar things or people interconnected

with each other is called network

What is Computer Network?

A computer network is an interconnection among two or more

computers or computing devices. Such interconnection allows

computers to share data and resources among each other.

What is Computer Network?

• For communication, data in a network is divided into smaller

chunks called packets. These packets are then carried over a

network.

• Devices in a network can be connected either through wired

media like cables or wireless media like air.

Advantages of NETWORK
NETWORK
Timeline showing evolution of
networking
Timeline showing evolution of
networking
SYLLABUS
Data Communication

Data and Communication

• Data can be any text, image, audio, video, and

multimedia files.
• Communication is an act of sending or
receiving data.
• Data communication refers to the exchange of
data between two or more networked or
connected devices.
• These devices must be capable of sending and
receiving data over a communication medium.
Examples of such devices include personal
computers, mobile phones, laptops, etc.
Components of Data
Communication

• sender
• receiver
• communication medium
• the message to be communicated, and
• certain rules called protocols to be followed during communication.
Components of Data
Communication

• Sender: A sender is a computer or any such device which is

capable of sending data over a network.
• It can be a computer, mobile phone, smartwatch, walkietalkie,
video recording device, etc..
Components of Data
Communication

• Receiver: A receiver is a computer or any such device which is

capable of receiving data from the network.
• It can be any computer, printer, laptop, mobile phone, television,
etc.
• In computer communication, the sender and receiver are known as
nodes in a network.
Components of Data
Communication

• Message: It is the data or information that needs to be exchanged

between the sender and the receiver.
• Messages can be in the form of text, number, image, audio, video,
multimedia, etc.
Components of Data
Communication

• Communication media: It is the path through which the message

travels between source and destination.
• It is also called medium or link which is either wired or
wireless.
• For example, a television cable, telephone cable, ethernet cable,
satellite link, microwaves, etc.
Components of Data
Communication

• Protocols: It is a set of rules that need to be followed by the

communicating parties in order to have successful and reliable
data communication.
Measuring Capacity of Communication Media

• In data communication, the transmission medium is also known as

channel.
• The capacity of a channel is the maximum amount of signals or
traffic that a channel can carry.
It is measured in terms
of bandwidth and data
transfer rate
Measuring Capacity of Communication Media
Measuring Capacity of Communication Media

Bandwidth

• Bandwidth of a channel is the range of frequencies available for

transmission of data through that channel.
• Higher the bandwidth, higher the data transfer rate.
• Normally, bandwidth is the difference of maximum and minimum
frequency contained in the composite signals.
• Bandwidth is measured in Hertz (Hz).
1 KHz =1000 Hz
1 MHz =1000
KHz = 1000000 Hz
Measuring Capacity of Communication Media

Bandwidth

• High bandwidth channels are called broadband channels.

• Low bandwidth channels are called narrowband channels.
Measuring Capacity of Communication Media

Bandwidth
 Measuring Capacity of Communication Media

• Data travels in the form of signals over a channel.

• Each signal carries one or more bits over the channel.

Data Transfer Rate

• Data transfer rate is the number of bits transmitted

between source and destination in one second.
• It is also known as bit rate.
• It is measured in terms of bits per second (bps).
 Measuring Capacity of Communication Media

Data Transfer Rate

• The higher units for data transfer rates are:

 Measuring Capacity of Communication Media

Data Transfer Rate

• Example 11.1 A user wants to upload a text document at the rate

of 10 pages per 20 second. What will be the required data rate of
the channel? (Assume that 1 page contains 1600 characters and
each character is of 8 bits).
Address

• Each node in a network should be uniquely identified so that

network device can identify the sender and receiver and decide a
routing path to transmit data.
Mac Address

• MAC stands for Media Access Control.

• The MAC address, also known as physical or
hardware address, is a unique value associated
with a network adapter called a NIC.
• The MAC address is engraved on NIC at the time
of manufacturing, and thus it is a permanent
address and cannot be changed under any
circumstances.
• The machine on which NIC is attached, can be
physically identified on the network using its
Mac Address

• It is globally unique; it means two devices cannot have the same MAC
address. It is represented in a hexadecimal format on each device, such
as 00:0a:95:9d:67:16.
• It is 12-digit, and 48 bits long, out of which the first 24 bits are used for
OUI(Organization Unique Identifier), and 24 bits are for NIC/vendor-
specific.
Format of MAC Address
Mac Address
IP Address
IP Address

• An Internet Protocol (IP) address is a unique numerical identifier for

every device or network that connects to the internet.
• Typically assigned by an internet service provider (ISP), an IP address is
an online device address used for communicating across the internet.
IP Address
IP Address
IP Address
IP Address
IP Address
IP Address
IP Address
SYLLABUS
Types of Data Communication

• Data communication happens in the form of signals between

two or more computing devices or nodes.
• The transfer of data happens over a point-to-point or multipoint
communication channel.
Types of Data Communication
Simplex Communication

• It is a one way or unidirectional communication between two

devices in which one device is sender and other one is receiver.
• Devices use the entire capacity of the link to transmit the data.
• It is like a one way street where vehicles can move in only one
direction. For example, data entered through a keyboard or audio
sent to a speaker are one way communications.
Half-duplex Communication

• It is two way or bidirectional communication between two

devices in which both the devices can send and receive data or
control signals in both directions, but not at the same time.
• Basically, it is a simplex channel where the direction of
transmission can be switched. Application of such type of
communication can be found
Full-duplex Communication

• It is two way or bidirectional communication in which both

devices can send and receive data simultaneously.
• This type of communication channel is employed to allow
simultaneous communication.
• The capacity of the transmission link is shared between the signals
going in both directions.
• This can be done either by using two physically separate simplex lines
— one for sending and other for receiving, or the capacity of the single
channel is shared between the signals travelling in different directions.
Types of Networks

• There are various types of computer networks ranging from network of

handheld devices (like mobile phones or tablets) connected through
Wi-Fi or Bluetooth within a single room to the millions of computers
spread across the globe.
• Some are connected wireless while others are connected through
wires.
• Based on the geographical area covered and data transfer rate,
computer networks are broadly categorised as:
• PAN ( Personal Area Network)
• LAN (Local Area Network)
Personal Area Network(PAN)

• It is a network formed by connecting a few personal devices like

computers, laptops, mobile phones, smart phones, printers etc.
• All these devices lie within an approximate range of 10 metres.
• A personal area network may be wired or wireless.

For example, a mobile phone

connected to the laptop through USB
forms a wired PAN while two
smartphones communicating with
each other through Bluetooth
Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

• Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) is an

extended form of LAN which covers a
larger geographical area like a city or a
town.
• Data transfer rate in MAN also ranges in
Mbps, but it is considerably less as
compared to LAN.
• Cable TV network or cable based
broadband internet services are examples
of MAN.
Wide Area Network (WAN)

• Wide Area Network connects computers and other LANs and

MANs, which are spread across different geographical locations
of a country or in different countries or continents.
• A WAN could be formed by connecting a LAN to other LANs via
wired/wireless media. Large business, educational and
government organisations connect their different branches in
different locations across the world through WAN.
• The Internet is the largest WAN that connects billions of
computers, smartphones and millions of LANs from different
continents.
Wide Area Network (WAN)
Networking Topologies

• The arrangement of computers and other peripherals in a

network is called its topology.
• Common network topologies are Mesh, Ring, Bus, Star and Tree.
Networking Topologies – Bus Topology

• Each communicating device connects to a transmission medium,

known as bus.
• Data sent from a node are passed on to the bus and hence are
transmitted to the length of the bus in both directions.
• That means, data can be received by any of the nodes connected to
the bus.
• In this topology, a single backbone wire called bus is shared among
the nodes, which makes it cheaper and easier to maintain.
• Both ring and bus topologies are considered to be less secure and less
Networking Topologies – Star Topology

• In star topology, each communicating device

is connected to a central node, which is a
networking device like a hub or a switch.
• Star topology is considered very effective,
efficient and fast as each device is directly
connected with the central device.
• Although disturbance in one device will not
affect the rest of the network, any failure in a
central networking device may lead to the
failure of complete network.
Networking Topologies – Star Topology
Networking Topologies – Ring Topology

• In ring topology, each node is connected

to two other devices, one each on either
side. The nodes connected with each
other thus forms a ring.
• The link in a ring topology is
unidirectional. Thus, data can be
transmitted in one direction only
(clockwise or counterclockwise).
Networking Topologies – Mesh Topology

• In this networking topology, each

communicating device is connected with
every other device in the network.
• Such a network can handle large amounts
of traffic since multiple nodes can
transmit data simultaneously.
• Also, such networks are more reliable in
the sense that even if a node gets down,
it does not cause any break in the
transmission of data between other
Networking Topologies – Mesh Topology

• This topology is also more secure as

compared to other topologies because each
cable between two nodes carries different
data.
• Wiring is complex and cabling cost is high
in creating such networks and there are
many redundant or unutilised connections.
Networking Topologies – Tree or Hybrid Topology

• It is a hierarchical topology, in which there are

multiple branches and each branch can have
one or more basic topologies like star, ring
and bus.
• Such topologies are usually realized in WANs
where multiple LANs are connected.
• Those LANs may be in the form of a ring, bus
or star.
• In this type of network, data transmitted from
source first reaches the centralized device
Switching Techniques

• In a network having multiple devices, how to connect the sender

and receiver so that one-to-one communication is possible?

Make a dedicated connection between each pair of

devices (mesh topology) or between a central device and
every other device (a star topology).

These methods are costly in case of large networks.

Switching Techniques

• An alternative to this is switching whereby data is routed through

various nodes in a network.
• This switching process forms a temporary route for the data to be
transmitted.
• Two commonly used switching techniques are
Circuit Switching
Packet Switching
Circuit Switching

• In circuit switching, before a communication starts, a dedicated path

is identified between the sender and the receiver.
• This path is a connected sequence of links between network nodes.
• All packets follow the same path established during the connection.
Circuit Switching

• In earlier days, when we placed a telephone call, the switching

equipment within the telephone system finds out a physical path or
channel all the way from our telephone at home to the receiver’s
telephone. This is an example of circuit switching.
Circuit Switching
Packet Switching

• In packet switching, each

information or message to be
transmitted between sender and
receiver is broken down into smaller
pieces, called packets.
• These packets are then transmitted
independently through the network.
• Different packets of the same
message may take different routes
depending on availability.
Packet Switching

• Each packet has two parts — a

header containing the address of the
destination and other information,
and the main message part.
• When all the packets reach the
destination, they are reassembled
and the complete message is
received by the receiver.
Packet Switching

• Unlike circuit switching, a channel is occupied in packet switching

only during the transmission of the packet.
• On completion of the transmission, the channel is available for
transfer of packets from other communicating parties.
CIRCUIT AND PACKET SWITCHING
Transmission Media

• A transmission medium can be anything that

can carry signals or data between the source
(transmitter) and destination (receiver).
• For example, as we switch on a ceiling fan or a
light bulb, the electric wire is the medium that
carries electric current from switch to the fan or
bulb.
• In data communication, transmission media are
the links that carry messages between two or
more communicating devices.
 Transmission Media

• In guided transmission, there • In unguided transmission,

is a physical link made of data travels in air in terms of
wire/cable through which electromagnetic waves using
data in terms of signals are an antenna.
propagated between the • They are also known as
nodes. wireless media.
• These are usually metallic
cable, fiber-optic cable, etc.
• They are also known as wired
media.
Wireless Media

• Dish-shaped antennas are used for

sending and receiving data at longer
distances.
• These antennas are mounted on taller
buildings so that it would be in line-
ofsight.
• Waves gradually become weaker and
weaker after travelling a certain
distance through the air.
• Therefore repeaters are installed to
Wired Transmission Media

• Any physical link that can carry data in the form of signals belongs
to the category of wired transmission media.
• Three commonly used guided/wired media for data transmission
are, twisted pair, coaxial cable, and fiber optic cable.
• Twisted-pair and coaxial cable carry the electric signals whereas
the optical fiber cable carries the light signals.
(A) Twisted Pair Cable

• A twisted-pair consists of two

copper wires twisted like a DNA
helical structure.
• Both the copper wires are insulated
with plastic covers.
• Usually, a number of such pairs are
combined together and covered
with a protective outer wrapping.
(A) Twisted Pair Cable

• Each of the twisted pairs act as a single

communication link.
• The use of twisted configuration minimises
the effect of electrical interference from
similar pairs close by.
• Twisted pairs are less expensive and most
commonly used in telephone lines and
LANs.
• These cables are of two types: Unshielded
twisted-pair (UTP) and Shielded twisted-
(B) Coaxial cable

• Coaxial cable is another type of data

transmission medium.
• It is better shielded and has more
bandwidth than a twisted pair.
• It has a copper wire at the core of the cable
which is surrounded with insulating
material.
• The insulator is further surrounded with an
outer conductor (usually a copper mesh).
• This outer conductor is wrapped in a plastic
(B) Coaxial cable

• The key to success of coaxial cable is its

shielded design that allows the cable's
copper core to transmit data quickly,
without interference of environmental
factors.
• These types of cables are used to carry
signals of higher frequencies to a longer
distance.
 (C) Optical Fibre

• The optical fiber cable carries data as light, which travels inside a thin
fiber of glass.
• Optic fiber uses refraction to direct the light through the media.
• A thin transparent strand of glass at the centre is covered with a layer of
less dense glass called cladding.
• This whole arrangement is covered with an outer jacket made of PVC or
Teflon.
 (C) Optical Fibre

• Such types of cables are usually used in backbone networks.

• These cables are of light weight and have higher bandwidth which
means higher data transfer rate.
• Signals can travel longer distances and electromagnetic noise cannot
affect the cable.
• However, optic fibers are expensive and unidirectional.
• Two cables are required for full duplex communication.
 (C) Optical Fibre

• Such types of cables are usually used in backbone networks.

• These cables are of light weight and have higher bandwidth which
means higher data transfer rate.
• Signals can travel longer distances and electromagnetic noise cannot
affect the cable.
(C) Optical Fibre
 Wireless Transmission Media

• In wireless communication technology,

information In wireless communication
technology, information travels in the form of
electromagnetic signals through air.
• Electromagnetic spectrum of frequency ranging
from 3 KHz to 900 THz is available for wireless
communication.
• Wireless technologies allow communication
between two or more devices in short to long
distance without requiring any physical media.
 Wireless Transmission Media

• There are many types of wireless communication technologies such as

Bluetooth, WiFi, WiMax etc.
• The electromagnetic spectrum range (3KHz to 900THz) can be divided
into 4 categories –
• Radio waves,
• Microwaves,
• Infrared waves and
• Visible or Light waves, according to their frequency ranges.
Wireless Transmission Media
Wireless Transmission Media – Radio Waves
Wireless Transmission Media – Micro Waves
Wireless Transmission Media – Infrared Waves

Infrared communication (IR) is a wireless mobile

technology used for device communication over short
ranges.
Unguided infrared and millimeter waves are widely used
for short-range communication.
Network Devices

To communicate data through different transmission media and to configure

networks with different functionality, we require different devices like
Modem, Hub, Switch, Repeater, Router, Gateway, etc.
Network Devices - MODEM

• Modem stands for ‘MOdulator DEModulator’.

• It refers to a device used for conversion between analog signals and digital bits.
• We know computers store and process data in terms of 0s and 1s.
• However, to transmit data from a sender to a receiver, or while browsing the
internet, digital data are converted to an analog signal and the medium (be it
free-space or a physical media) carries the signal to the receiver.
Network Devices - MODEM

• There are modems connected to both the source and destination nodes.
• The modem at the sender’s end acts as a modulator that converts the digital
data into analog signals.
• The modem at the receiver’s end acts as a demodulator that converts the
analog signals into digital data for the destination node to understand.
Ethernet Card

• Ethernet card, also known as Network

Interface Card (NIC card in short) is a
network adapter used to set up a
wired network.
• It acts as an interface between
computer and the network.
• It is a circuit board mounted on the
motherboard of a computer
Ethernet Card

• The Ethernet cable connects the

computer to the network through NIC.
• Ethernet cards can support data transfer
between 10 Mbps and 1 Gbps (1000
Mbps).
• Each NIC has a MAC address, which
helps in uniquely identifying the
computer on the network.
RJ45

• RJ 45 or Registered Jack-45 is an eight-

pin connector that is used exclusively
with Ethernet cables for networking.
• It is a standard networking interface that
can be seen at the end of all network
cables.
• Basically, it is a small plastic plug that
fits into RJ-45 jacks of the Ethernet cards
present in various computing devices
Repeater

• Data are carried in the form of signals over

the cable.
• These signals can travel a specified distance
(usually about 100 m).
• Signals lose their strength beyond this limit
and become weak. In such conditions, original
signals need to be regenerated.
• A repeater is an analog device that works with
signals on the cables to which it is connected.
• The weakened signal appearing on the cable
is regenerated and put back on the cable by a
repeater.
Hub

• An Ethernet hub is a network device used to connect different devices through

wires.
• Data arriving on any of the lines are sent out on all the others.
• The limitation of Hub is that if data from two devices come at the same time,
they will collide.
Switch

• A switch is a networking device that plays a central role in a Local Area Network
(LAN).
• Like a hub, a network switch is used to connect multiple computers or
communicating devices.
• When data arrives, the switch extracts the destination address from the data
packet and looks it up in a table to see where to send the packet.
Switch

• Thus, it sends signals to only selected devices instead of sending to all. It can
forward multiple packets at the same time.
• A switch does not forward the signals which are noisy or corrupted. It drops
such signals and asks the sender to resend it.
• Ethernet switches are common in homes/offices to connect multiple devices
thus creating LANs or to access the Internet.
Router

• A router is a network device that can receive the data, analyse it and transmit
it to other networks.
• A router connects a local area network to the internet.
• Compared to a hub or a switch, a router has advanced capabilities as it can
analyse the data being carried over a network, decide/alter how it is packaged,
and send it to another network of a different type.
Router

• For example, data has been divided into packets of a certain size.
• Suppose these packets are to be carried over a different type of network which
cannot handle bigger packets. In such a case, the data is to be repackaged as
smaller packets and then sent over the network by a router
Gateway

• As the term “Gateway” suggests, it is a key access point that acts as a “gate”
between an organisation's network and the outside world of the Internet.
• Gateway serves as the entry and exit point of a network, as all data coming in
or going out of a network must first pass through the gateway in order to use
routing paths.
• Besides routing data packets, gateways also maintain information about the
Gateway

• If a node from one network wants to communicate with a node of a foreign

network, it will pass the data packet to the gateway, which then routes it to the
destination using the best possible route.
 Gateway

• For simple Internet connectivity at homes, the gateway is usually the Internet
Service Provider that provides access to the entire Internet.
• Generally, a router is configured to work as a gateway device in computer
networks.
• But a gateway can be implemented completely in software, hardware, or a
combination of both. Because a network gateway is placed at the edge of a
SYLLABUS
 NETWORK PROTOCOL

• In communication, Protocol is a set of standard rules that the communicating

parties — the sender, the receiver, and all other intermediate devices need to
follow.
• Besides the geographical locations, the data transfer rates in different networks
can vary, requiring data to be sent in different formats.
NETWORK PROTOCOL

Need for
Protocols? • Flow control, access control, addressing
• Flow control is required when the sender and
receiver have different speeds of sending and
receiving the data.
NETWORK PROTOCOL

• Computer A is sending data at the speed of 1024 Mbps and

computer B is receiving data at the speed of 512 Mbps.
• In this case, Computer B must be able to inform computer A about
the speed mismatch so that computer A can adjust its data
transmission rate.
• Otherwise some data will be lost, as shown in Figure 11.14.
NETWORK PROTOCOL

• Access control is required to decide which nodes in a communication

channel will access the link shared among them at a particular
instant of time.
• Otherwise, the transmitted data packets will collide if computers are
sending data simultaneously through the same link resulting in the
loss or corruption of data.
Protocols also define:

• How computers identify one another on a network.

• The form to which the data should be converted for transit.
• How to decide whether the data received is for that node or to be
forwarded to another node.
• Ensuring that all the data have reached the destination without any
loss.
• How to rearrange the packets and process them at the destination.
If all the rules or protocols of a communication network are defined at
one place, it becomes complex to ensure that communicating parties
follow the guidelines.
HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP)

• HTTP stands for HyperText Transfer Protocol. It is the primary

protocol used to access the World Wide Web.
• Tim Berners-Lee led the development of HTTP at CERN in 1989 in
collaboration with Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) and the
World Wide Web Consortium (W3C).
• HTTP is a request-response (also called clientserver) protocol that
runs over TCP.
• The common use of HTTP is between a web browser (client) and a
web server (server).
HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP)

• For example, whenever we enter the URL http// www.ncert.nic.in in a

browser, it sends HTTP request to the web-server where ncert.nic.in
is hosted. The HTTP response from the web-server fetches and sends
the requested Web-page, which is displayed on your browser.
HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP)
File Transfer Protocol (FTP)

• File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is the protocol used for transferring files
from one machine to another. Like HTTP, FTP also works on a client-
server model.
• When a user requests for a file transfer with another system, FTP
sets up a connection between the two nodes for accessing the file.
File Transfer Protocol (FTP)

• Optionally, the user can authenticate using user ID and password.

• The user then specifies the file name and location of the desired file.
• After that, another connection sets up and the file transfer happens
directly between the two machines.
• However, some servers provide FTP logins without authentication for
accessing files.
File Transfer Protocol (FTP)

File transfer between two systems seems simple and straightforward

because FTP takes care of issues between two communicating devices,
such as:
• use of different conventions while naming files.
• representation of text and data in different formats.
• having different directory structure
File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
Point to Point Protocol (PPP)

• PPP is a communication protocol which establishes a dedicated and

direct connection between two communicating devices.
• This protocol defines how two devices will authenticate each other
and establish a direct link between them to exchange data.
• For example, two routers with direct connection communicate using
PPP.
• The Internet users who connect their home computers to the server
of an Internet Service Provider (ISP) through a modem also use PPP.
Point to Point Protocol (PPP)

• The communicating devices should have duplex modes for using this
protocol. This protocol maintains data integrity ensuring that the
packets arrive in order. It intimates the sender about damage or lost
packets and asks to resend it.
Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP)

• SMTP is a protocol used for email services.

• It uses information written on the message header (like an envelope
on a letter sent by post), and is not concerned with the content of
the email message. Each email header contains email addresses of
recipients.
• The email containing header and body are entered into a queue of
outgoing mails.
Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP)

• The SMTP sender program takes mails from the outgoing queue and
transmits them to the destination(s).
• When the SMTP sender successfully delivers a particular mail to one
or more destinations, it removes the corresponding receiver’s email
address from the mail’s destination list.
• When that mail is delivered to all the recipients, it is removed from
the outgoing queue.
• The SMTP receiver program accepts each mail that has arrived and
places it in the appropriate user mailbox.
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)/Internet Protocol (IP)

• TCP/IP stands for Transmission Control Protocol/ Internet Protocol.

• It is a set of standardized rules that uses a client-server model of
communication in which a user or machine (a client) requests a
service by a server in the network.
• The IP protocol ensures that each computer or node connected to
the Internet is assigned an IP address, which is used to identify each
node independently.
• TCP ensures that the message or data is broken into smaller chunks,
called IP packets.
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)/ Internet Protocol (IP)

• Each of these packets are routed (transmitted) through the Internet,

along a path from one router to the next, until it reaches the
specified destination.
• TCP guarantees the delivery of packets on the designated IP
address.
• It is also responsible for ordering the packets so that they are
delivered in sequence.
• So, there are many possible paths between two hosts. Hence, two
packets of the same message can take two different routes
depending on congestion and other factors in different
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)/ Internet Protocol (IP)

• When all the packets finally reach the destination machine, they are
reassembled into the original message at the receiver’s end.
TELNET
ABBREVIATIONS
SYLLABUS
How does the Internet works?
WWW (The World Wide Web)

• Information - stored in the form of trillions of interlinked web pages

and web resources - can be shared or accessed through the
Internet.
• Sir Tim Berners-Lee — a British computer scientist invented the
revolutionary World Wide Web in 1990 by defining three
fundamental technologies that lead to creation of web
WWW (The World Wide Web)

• Three fundamental technologies that lead to creation of web

URI – Uniform Resource Identifier.
HTML – HyperText It is a unique address or path for each resource
Markup Language. It is located on the web. It is also known as Uniform
a language which is Resource Locator (URL).
used to design Every page on the web has a unique URL.
standardised Web Examples are: http:// www.ncert.nic.in, etc. URL is
Pages so that the Web sometimes also called web address. However, a URL is
contents can be read not only the domain name. It contains other
and understood from information that completes a web address, as depicted
any computer. Basic below:
structure of every
WWW (The World Wide Web)

• Three fundamental technologies that lead to creation of web

HTTP – The HyperText Transfer Protocol is a set of rules which is used to retrieve
linked web pages across the web. The more secure and advanced version is
HTTPS.
Domain Name System

• Information is available in the form of millions of websites.

• Each website is stored on a server which is connected to the Internet, which
means each server has an IP address.
• Every device connected to the Internet has an IP address.
• To access a website, we need to enter its IP address on our web browser. But it
is very difficult to remember the IP addresses of different websites
• Each computer server hosting a website or web resource is given a name
against its IP address. These names are called the Domain names or hostnames
corresponding to unique IP addresses assigned to each server.
DNS Server

• Conversion of the domain name of each web server to its corresponding IP

address is called domain name resolution.
• It is done through a server called DNS server.
• Thus, when we enter a URL on a web browser, the HTTP protocol approaches a
computer server called DNS server to obtain the IP address corresponding to
that domain name. After getting the IP address, the HTTP protocol retrieves the
information and loads it in our browser.
DNS Server

• The DNS servers are placed in hierarchical order.

• At the top level, there are 13 servers called root servers. Then below the root
servers there are other DNS servers at different levels.
• A DNS server may contain the IP address corresponding to a domain or it will
contain the IP address of other DNS servers, where this domain entry can be
searched.