RETAINING WALLS

RETAINING WALLS
• The basic function of a retaining wall is to retain soil at a slope that is greater than it
would naturally assume, usually at a vertical or near-vertical position.

• The natural slope taken up by any soil is called its angle of repose and is measured in
relationship to the horizontal

• The walls are designed to offer the necessary resistance by using their own mass to
resist the thrust or relying upon the principles of leverage.
RETAINING WALL
RETAINING WALL

• To reduce hydrostatic pressure on the wall

from ground water an adequate drainage
system in the form of weep holes should
be used, alternatively subsoil drainage
behind the wall could be employed.

• Retaining walls may be made of

masonry, preservative-treated wood,
coated or galvanized steel, precast
concrete, or, most commonly, sitecast
concrete
DESIGN PRINCIPLES
• No overturning

• No sliding

• Subsoil on which the wall rests is not overloaded

• Materials used in construction should not be overstressed

• In clay subsoils slip circle failure should not occur

Design failures
Factors considered in design process
• Nature and type of soil

• Height of water table

• Subsoil water movements

• Type of wall

• Materials used in the construction of the wall

EARTH PRESSURES
Active earth pressures
• They are those that at all times are tending to move or overturn the retaining wall, and
are composed of the earth wedge being retained together with any hydrostatic
pressure caused by the presence of groundwater.

• The latter can be reduced by the use of subsoil drainage behind the wall, or by
inserting drainage openings called weep holes through the thickness of the stem,
enabling the water to drain away.
Passive earth pressures

• These are a reaction of an equal and opposite force to any imposed pressure thus
giving stability by resisting movement

• They are reactionary pressures that will react in the form of a resistance to movement
of the wall.

• If the wall tends to move forward, the earth in front of the toe will be compressed, and
a reaction in the form of passive pressure will build up in front of the toe to counteract
the forward movement.

• This pressure can be increased by enlarging the depth of the toe or by forming a rib on
the underside of the base.
STABILITY
• The overall stability of a retaining wall is governed by the result of the action and
reaction of a number of loads.

• Applied loads include soil and water pressure on the back of the wall; the mass of the
wall; and, in certain forms of cantilever wall, the mass of the soil acting with the mass
of the wall.

• Induced loads include, the ground pressure under the base, the passive pressure at the
toe, and the friction between the underside of the base and the soil.
EFFECTS OF WATER
• Groundwater behind a retaining wall, whether static or percolating through a subsoil,
can have adverse effects upon the design and stability.

• It will increase the pressure on the back of the wall, and by reducing the soil shear
strength it can reduce the bearing capacity of the soil.

• It can reduce the frictional resistance between the base and the soil and reduce the
possible passive pressure in front of the wall

• Drainage, dewatering and water proofing measures are very necessary

SLIP CIRCLE FAILURE
• This is sometimes encountered with retaining walls in clay soils, particularly where
there is a heavy surcharge of retained material.

• It takes the form of a rotational movement of the soil and wall along a circular arc.

• The arc commences behind the wall and passes under the base, resulting in a tilting
and forward movement of the wall.

• Further movement can be prevented by driving sheet piles into the ground in front of
the toe, to a depth that will cut the slip circle arc.
SLIP CIRCLE FAILURE
TYPES OF RETAINING WALLS
• Mass retaining wall

• Cantilever retaining wall

• Precast concrete retaining wall

• Anchored retaining wall

• Reinforced masonry retaining walls

• Crib-retaining wall

• Counter-front retaining wall

Mass retaining wall
• Rely mainly on their own mass together with friction on the underside to overcome the
tendency to slide forwards or overturn.

• Mass retaining walls are not generally considered to be economic over a height of 1.8m
when constructed of brick or concrete and 1m high in the case of natural stonework.

• Mass brick walls can be constructed with semi-engineering bricks bedded in 1:3 cement
mortar.

• Mass concrete walls should be reinforced with light fabric to prevent shrinkage cracking.

• Any mass retaining wall can be faced with another material but generally any applied
facing will not increase the strength of the wall and is therefore only used for aesthetic
reasons.
Mass concrete retaining wall
 Cantilever retaining wall
• This type of wall is constructed of reinforced concrete with an economic height range of 1.2m to
6.m.

• Walls in excess of this height have been economically constructed using prestressing
techniques.

• This wall works on principles of leverage where the stem is designed as a cantilever fixed at the
base and base is designed as a cantilever fixed at the stem. Several formats are possible and in
most cases a beam is placed below the base to increase the total passive resistance to sliding.

• Any durable facing material may be applied to the surface to improve the appearance of the
wall, but it must be remembered that such finishes are decorative and add nothing to the
structural strength of the wall.
Cantilever retaining wall
 Precast concrete retaining wall
• These are manufactured from high-grade precast concrete on the cantilever principle,
usually to a 600 mm wide.

• They can be erected on a foundation as a permanent retaining wall, or be free standing

to act as a dividing wall between heaped materials such as aggregates for concrete

• Other advantages are a reduction in time by eliminating the curing period that is
required for in-situ walls and eliminating the need for costly formwork together with the
time required to erect and dismantle the temporary forms.

• Special units to form internal angles, external angles, junctions and curved walls are
also available to provide flexible layout arrangements.
Precast concrete retaining wall
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