Sampling Design and

Implementation
Programme:M.Sc. Environmental Health and Sanitation

Course Code and Title: EHSP 802: Environmental Monitoring and

Risk Assessment

Lecturer: Dr. Vitus Tankpa

Learning Objectives
• Students should be able to:
• Understand and explain the concepts of sample and sampling design
• Explain factors to consider when designing sampling for monitoring
programme
• Plan and undertake sampling from air, water and soil media for monitoring
and risk assessment
Introduction
Environmental Monitoring :It is the systematic sampling of air, water, soil and biota in order to
observe and study the environment as well as derived knowledge from this process(Artiola et al.,
2004; Wiersma 2004)

Monitoring can be conducted for a number of purposes, including

• To establish environmental baselines, trends, and cumulative effects

• To estimate the changes in levels of the pollutants in the environment
• Confirming and reconfirming the success of the pollution control measures
• To ensure compliance with environmental regulations and government policies
• To inform policy design and decision-making
• Recommendation of improves mitigation measures to be undertaken
Introduction
•In EM we often collect representative samples of a small part of the environment in which we
are interested, and analyze these to provide information about the composition of the area
• For example, it is obviously impossible to analyze all the water in a lake, so portions of the
water must be collected and analyzed to determine the true concentrations of materials in the
lake.
•Similarly, to study contaminated soil around a leaking underground gasoline tank, numerous
soil samples are needed to map the extent of the pollution.
•The importance of good sampling cannot be over stressed, because sample is the source of
information about the environment
•If it is not collected properly, if it does not represent the system we are trying to analyze, then
all our careful laboratory work is useless.
What is Sampling
• Sampling – the selection of some part of an aggregate or totality on the basis of which a
judgement or inference about the aggregate or totality is made.
• In other words, it is the process of obtaing information about an entire population by
examining only a part of it,
• the process by which inference is made to the whole by examining a part
•Sampling is done for monitoring purposes, as well as for research.
•Data may be collected to monitor air and water effluents or to characterize pollutant levels
in environmental media (air, water, soil, biota).
The objectives may be
to comply with regulatory requirements,
to identify long and short term trends,
to detect accidental releases, or
to develop a data base or inventory of pollutant levels
Sampling Strategies
When it comes to sampling, the essential questions are: where to collect the samples, when to
collect them, and how many samples to collect. Most environmental measurement domains are
large and it is not easy to answer these questions. Some of the factors to be considered in
determining a sampling strategy are:
The study objectives: Different objectives require different sampling strategies. For example, if
the objective is to measure the total release of heavy metals into a river by an industry, a 24 hour
integrated sample may be taken. However, if the goal is to monitor for accidental releases, then
sampling and analysis may have to be done almost continuously
The pattern and variability of environmental contamination: The number of samples to be
collected in space and time depends upon the variability in the concentrations to be measured.
For example, pollutant levels in air can vary significantly depending upon meteorological
conditions, or traffic patterns. In general, if the spatial or temporal variability is high, a larger
number of samples needs to be analyzed

Cost of the study: If more samples are analyzed, the information obtained will have higher
precision and accuracy. However, more samples also require more money, time, and resources.
So, it is necessary to design an effective sampling plan within the available resources.
Sampling Approaches
There are several approaches to sampling;

Types of sampling techniques

Probability Nonprobability
sampling sampling
technique technique

• Simple random sampling • Purposive sampling

• Systematic sampling • Haphazard sampling
• Stratified sampling • Judgement sampling
• Cluster/multistage sampling • Quota sampling
• Snowball sampling
Sampling Approaches
Systematic Sampling
Measurements are taken at locations and/or times according to a predetermined pattern. For
example, the area to be analyzed may divided by a grid, and a sample taken at each point of the
grid. For air pollution studies, an air sample might be taken at fixed intervals of time, say every
three hours. This approach does not require the prior knowledge of pollutant distribution, is easy
to implement, and should produce unbiased samples. However, systematic sampling may require
more samples to be taken than some of the other methods.
Simple Random Sampling
• This is the most pure & basic probability sampling design. In this type of sampling design
every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected.
• Random methods are good if the population does not have any obvious trends or patterns
• Population must be homogeneous and the investigator or researcher must have list of
elements/members of the accessible population
Sampling Approaches
Judgmental Sampling: For this method, sampling points are selected on the basis of the
investigator’s knowledge of the probable distribution of contaminants at the site. It is an efficient
sampling method which makes use of site history and filed observations but has the disadvantage
of being potentially biased. The quality of the sampling results depends on the experience of the
investigator and the available site history information.

Stratified Sampling: When a system contains several distinctly different areas, these may be
sampled separately, in a stratified sampling scheme. For example, in a pond or a lagoon where
oily waste floats over water and sediment settles to the bottom, the strata can be selected as a
function of depth, and random sampling can be done within each stratum. The strata in a stratified
scheme do not necessarily have to be obviously different. The area may be divided into
arbitrary/random subareas. Then a set of these are selected randomly. Each of these units is then
sampled randomly. For example, a hazardous waste site can be divided into different regions or
units. Then, the soil samples are collected at random within each region or within randomly
selected regions
Sampling Approaches
Haphazard Sampling
•With this method, a sampling location or sampling time is chosen
arbitrarily/randomly
•This type of sampling is reasonable for a homogeneous system
•Since most environmental systems have significant spatial or temporal variability,
haphazard sampling often leads to biased results
•However, this approach may be used as a preliminary screening technique to
identify a possible problem before full scale sampling is done
Types of Sampling
• Grab sampling: Is a discrete/saperate sample which is collected at a specific location at a certain
point in time. If the environmental medium varies spatially or temporally, then a single grab
sample is not representative and more sample nee to be collected. Eg a sample taken at a
specific time and point which gives an indication of a water quality at that point in time.
• Composite sampling: Is made by thoroughly mixing several grab samples. They are usually
obtained by mixing equal volumes of discrete grab samples (collected at one point at regular
time intervals).
Designing Sampling Programme for Monitoring
The following are important in sampling design:
• Scope of Sampling;
• Sampling design process;
• Transportation and security; and
• Available laboratory for analyses (possible contact)
Designing Sampling Programme for
Monitoring-Scope of sampling
The scope of environmental monitoring sample includes:
Aim and objectives
Geographical boundaries
Duration
Frequency of sampling
Designing Sampling Programme for Monitoring-Scope of
sampling
 Aim and objectives
Before any sampling is carried out, the aim and objectives of the sampling exercise, and how the
results will be used should be established; For instance the aim of sampling could include;
• For monitoring
• For baseline assessment
• For risk assessment
• For educational research
For example sampling for monitoring purpose may be use to check:
• Compliance with established standard;
• Understand the trend of environmental conditions;
• Investigate reported pollution
• Evaluation of the system
Designing Sampling Programme for Monitoring-Scope of
sampling

Common specific sampling objectives for monitoring include determining:

• if contaminants found in the environment have originated from a singular or multiple

source;

• whether contaminants released in an area are in sufficient quantity to cause adverse

environmental effects consistent with those observed at the time of the incident;

• whether the contaminants released from sources are having a measurable impact on
the receiving environment (e.g. water quality, air quality, soil quality and whether
environmental values are being affected); and
Designing Sampling Programme for Monitoring- Scope of sampling
Geographical boundaries
• The geographic boundaries of the sampling event should be based on the issue of
concern and the ecosystem type rather than on convenience and/or budgets;
• For example, important consideration should be given to :
 the likely spatial uniformity of the parameter/s of interest at a location (e.g. at
depth, cross section of a river)
the extent of the potential impacts downstream
the size of the area to be assessed.
Designing Sampling Programme for Monitoring-
Scope of sampling
Duration of sampling
• Temporal scale refers to the length of time over which a system is to be observed; that is, the
appropriate period of time over which the samples are to be collected.
• Different processes operate at different temporal scales, and the sampling design should
incorporate all the important time-related considerations into the design.
• The temporal characteristics and occurrence of the contaminant should be considered.
Frequency of sampling
• Consideration needs to be taken of the frequency of observations (sampling events) which is
required to provide sufficient resolution of the issues of concern.
• Sampling may be required every hour, day, week, fortnight, month or possibly only once a year.
Sample design
• A sample design is a definite plan for obtaining a sample from a given population. It refers to the
technique or procedure an investigator or researcher would adopt in selecting items for the sample.
• Sampling design is a fundamental part of data collection for scientifically based decision making. A
well-developed sampling design plays a critical role in ensuring that data are sufficient to draw the
conclusions needed
• A complete sampling design indicates the number of samples and identifies the particular samples (for
example, the geographic positions where these samples will be collected or the time points when
samples will be collected)
• Along with this information, a complete sampling design will also include an explanation and
justification for the number and the positions/timings of the samples.
• For a soil sample, the samples may be designated by longitude and latitude, or by measurements
relative to an existing structure. For air or water measurements, the samples would be designated by
longitude and latitude as well as by time
Sampling design
• For example, for the measurement of particulates in air, a specified length of time would be set,
such as 24 hours, in addition to the geographical location.

• The sampling design would note what time the air sample collection would begin (for example,
12:00 midnight on February 10, 2001), and when it would end (for example, 12:00 midnight on
February 11, 2001). The measurement protocol would then specify when the sampler would be
retrieved and how the sample would be analyzed

• A well-planned sampling design is intended to ensure that resulting data are adequately
representative of the target population and defensible for their intended use

• Throughout the sampling design process, the efficient use of time, money, and human resources
are critical considerations. A good design should meet the needs of the monitoring with a
minimum expenditure of resources
Sampling design
• For instance, it is preferable for the cost of sampling programs to be as small as possible
while still meeting the stated objectives of the monitoring.

• Costs of data acquisition taken into account for cost effectiveness include
• the number of sampling stations, sampling occasions and replicates
• the cost of collecting samples (staff, transport, consumables)
• the cost of analysis
• the cost of data handling and interpretation (cost of reporting)
Precautions during Sampling
The following precautions should be considered when collecting monitoring samples.
• Special care must be taken not to contaminate samples.
• This includes storing samples in a secure location to preclude conditions which could alter
the properties of the sample.
• Samples shall be custody sealed during long-term storage or shipment.
• Collected samples are in the custody of the sampler or sample custodian until the samples
are relinquished to another party.
• If samples are transported by the sampler, they will remain under his/her custody or be
secured until they are relinquished.
• transported samples shall conform to the established regulation
• Documentation of field sampling is done in a bound logbook.
• Chain-of-custody documents shall be filled out and remain with the samples until custody
is relinquished.
How do I begin Sampling
Considering the challenges of sampling, the following questions would be helpful:
• How do I begin?
• What should I do first?
• Why am I sampling?
• Who is going to do the laboratory analyses and interpret the data?
• What is at stake?
• Who are the stakeholders?
Preparation for Sampling
It is important to develop a sampling strategy to start with.
• Objective of the sampling
• Identify the resources available
• sources of information,
• permit and approval
• laboratories,
• means of transportation
• Evaluate equipment requirement
• Type of storage bottles or containers / Packaging materials
• Instruments for in-situ analysis
• Sampling kits
• Plan for sampling
• Sampling time
• Media needed – type of water, soil, air, active or passive sample, etc.
• Mode of transportation
Keeping a chain of Custody
• The chain of custody is information provided to guide the handling of the samples collected
through transportation to the laboratory till the analysis is completed.
• This is to avoid misrepresentation of samples.
• The chain of custody should have critical information including:
• the name and contact of the sampler;
• nature of the sample;
• Sample numbers
• collection date;
• analyses to be performed;
• sample preservation method;
• departure time from site; and
• Dispatch courier (s)
Quality of Sample Analysis
• The results of the analyses to be carried out are mostly influenced by:
• Field instruments
• Skills and experiences of the user
• Analytical procedure used

• Field instruments are tools to aid the sampling but should be well handled,
calibrated, maintained and operated
Quality of Sample Analysis
The accuracy and quality of sample analysis depend on the following:
• The method of sampling;
• the nature of the contaminant;
• the presence of interfering gases or vapours resulting in overestimates or
underestimates of environmental concentrations;
• the type and make of the instrument;
• the type of calibrate used;
• the length of time since the last calibration;
• the cleanliness of the instrument; and
• the skill and knowledge of the operator
Water Sampling
• Water is a universal solvent and required for production and general life of
human kind.
• They are easily contaminated and therefore frequently monitored to
minimise risk of adverse effects to consumers or users.
• Different techniques may be employed in sampling different water:
• Effluents – Industrial and Municipal sources
• Groundwater
• Drinking water supply system
• Raw water (River, Streams, Lakes, Ponds, and Precipitation/rainwater)
Water Sampling
Factors/guidelines to consider when undertaking samples for water quality analysis:

• Location of sampling points

• Sampling frequency
• Sampling methods for microbiological analysis
• Storage of samples for microbiological analysis
• Sampling methods for physicochemical analysis
Sampling of Water from Water Supply System
In selecting sampling points from water supply system, the following general criteria are
usually applicable:

• The points chosen should generally yield samples that are representative of the system as a
whole and of its main components.
• Sampling points should be located in such a way that water can be sampled from reserve
tanks and reservoirs, etc.
• In systems with more than one water source, the locations of the sampling points should
take account of the number of inhabitants served by each source.
• There should be at least one sampling point directly after the clean-water outlet from each
treatment plant.
Sampling for Different Analyses
Sampling Bottle types used at the Lab
A B C D E F G H J

03/28/2025 31
Sources of Contamination of Water Samples
• Generally, sampling processes should not introduce new contaminants into the sample
specimen.
• Sources of contamination of water samples:
• The residue of earlier samples remaining on sampling containers
• contamination from the sampling site during sampling
• residual water in or on ropes, chains, handles
• contamination of funnels from preserved samples
• contamination of the barrel of syringes and from filter medium;
• from hands, fingers, gloves and general handling
• internal combustion exhaust
• inappropriate sampling devices, bottles and filtration devices
• degraded reagents.
• contamination of bottle caps or tops by dust or water
03/28/2025 32
Precautions During Sampling
• avoid disturbance at the sampling site – walking in the water
• thoroughly rinse the sampling devices or equipment
• storing bottle caps and tops securely
• Wipe & dry ropes, chains handles between sampling & prior to storage
• Avoid touching the sample with fingers, hands or gloves especially samples for microbiology
analysis
• Keep you chain of custody properly – especially the numbering
• Calibrate equipment before use – if required

03/28/2025 33