Introduction to External Flow and Aerodynamics

Fluid Mechanics
Lecture by: Eng. Gayan Wickramarathne
B.Sc.Engineering Hons., PD in Buisness Administration
 Definition of External Flow:
o External flow refers to the movement of a fluid over the

surface of a solid body.

o The fluid can be air, water, or any other type of gas or
liquid, and the body could be an aircraft, vehicle, or any
object inter acting with the fluid.
 Key Characteristics of External Flow:
o Free- stream velocity: The velocity of the fluid far from the
body.
o Boundary layer: The thin layer of fluid close to the surface
where the velocity changes from zero (at the surface) to
the free- stream velocity.
Learning Objectives:
1. Understand the definition and importance of external
flow in engineering.
2. Analyze the characteristics of external flow, including the
boundary layer and free-stream velocity.
3. Differentiate between laminar and turbulent flow and
understand the relevance of Reynolds number.
4. Calculate drag and lift forces on bodies in external flow.
5. Apply these principles to solve engineering problems,
such as in automotive aerodynamics, ventilation system
design, and marine engineering.
6. Use case studies to explore real-world applications and
how these concepts are used to optimize design and
improve efficiency.
 Applications of External Flow:
o Aerodynamics in Vehicles: Design of cars, airplanes, and

other vehicles for minimal drag and improved efficiency.

o Marine Engineering: Reducing drag on ships and
submarines for better fuel efficiency and speed.
o Wind Turbines: Maximizing energy generation by
optimizing lift and drag forces on blades.
Characteristics of External Flow – Boundary
Layer Concept, Free-Stream Velocity
 Boundary Layer Concept:
o Definition: The boundar y layer is the thin r egion of fluid

near the sur face of a body, wher e the velocity of the fluid
changes fr om zer o (at the sur face) to the fr ee- str eam
velocity.
o Types of Boundary Layers:
 Laminar Boundary Layer: Smooth, or der ly flow
wher e fluid moves in par allel layer s.
 Turbulent Boundary Layer: Chaotic flow with
swir ling eddies and ir r egular motion.
 Free-Stream Velocity:
o The velocity of the fluid far away fr om the body,

unaffect ed by the pr esence of the body itself.

o This velocity is used as a r efer ence when analyzing for ces
and flow behavior ar ound the body.
Characteristics of External Flow – Boundary
Layer Concept, Free-Stream Velocity
 Key Points:
o The boundary layer significantly influences the drag on

the object .
o Laminar boundary layers create less drag, but they are
prone to separation.
o Turbulent boundary layers are thicker but can delay flow
separation, reducing drag in some cases.
Classification of External Flow:
o Laminar Flow:
 Smooth and orderly fluid motion.
 Occurs at lower velocities and higher fluid
viscosities.
 Flow is characterized by smooth layers of fluid
moving in parallel.
o Turbulent Flow:
 Chaotic and irregular fluid motion.
 Occurs at higher velocities and lower fluid
viscosities.
 Flow is characterized by vortices, eddies, and
swirling fluid motions.
 Classification of External Flow:
 Reynolds Number:
o A dimensionless number that helps predict flow patter ns
(whether the flow is laminar or turbulent ).
o Formula:

Re = (ρVD)/μ.
Interpretation:
Low Re (<2000): Laminar flow
High Re (>4000): Turbulent flow
 Mathematical Application: Reynolds Number Calculation
o Problem Statement: A car is moving through the air at a speed
of 30 m/s. The air density is 1.225 kg/m³, and the dynamic
viscosity is 1.81 x 10⁻⁵ Pa.s. The length of the car (characteristic
length) is 4 meters. Calculate the Reynolds number for the flow
around the car.
Flows Around a Body – Flow Separation, Wake
Region, Vortex Shedding
 Flow Around a Body:
o When fluid (e.g., air) flows around a body (e.g., a car, an

aircraft wing), the flow behavior can change significantly

depending on the shape and size of the body and the flow
condit ions.
Key Phenomena in External Flow:
 Key Phenomena in External Flow:

1. Flow Separation:
 Occur s w hen the fluid, m oving along the sur face of
the body, loses its sm ooth flow and detaches fr om
the sur face.
 Typically happens at the r ear of the body w hen the
fluid slow s dow n and can no longer over com e the
sur face's r esistance.
 L eads to a tur bulent w ake r egion.
2. Wake Region:
 The r egion of distur bed flow behind the body w her e
the flow is chaotic and tur bulent .
 The size of the w ake depends on the shape of the
body, its speed, and the Reynolds num ber .
3. Vortex Shedding:
 The per iodic for m ation of sw ir ling vor tices (eddies)
that alter nate betw een the sides of the body as the
fluid m oves past.
 Can lead to fluctuating for ces on the body,
potentially causing vibr ations or r esonance effects.
 Mathematical Problem – Flow Separation &
Wake Formation (Velocity Profile Analysis)
 Problem Statement:
o A nalyze the velocity profile in the wake region of a body

experiencing flow separation.

o Use theoretical knowledge of boundary layers, flow
separation, and wake formation to describe the velocity
changes behind the body.
Mathematical Problem – Flow Separation &
Wake Formation (Velocity Profile Analysis)
Boundary Layer Profile:

Befor e flow separation, the velocity profile in the boundary layer

starts from zero at the surface and increases to the free- stream
velocity.

Post- Separation Profile:

A fter separation, the flow becomes turbulent in the wake region,

leading to a significant reduct ion in velocity.

The velocity in the wake drops to near zero at the center of the wake
and gradually increases again.
 Key Assumptions:
o The flow is steady and incompressible.

o The Reynolds number is sufficient ly large to produce

turbulent flow in the wake.
o The flow is two- dimensional (ignoring vertical effect s for
simplification).
 Equations and Formulas:
o Boundary Layer Velocity Profile (Before Separation):
 , where:
 is the velocity at a point in the boundary
layer.
 is the free- stream velocity.
 is the boundary layer thickness at position .
o Post- Separation Flow:
 In the wake, the flow velocity drops drastically. The
velocity at the cent er of the wake may be
approximated as zero, and it increases again
furt her downstream.
 Forces Acting on a Body in External Flow – Definition
of Drag and Lift
 Forces on a Body in Flow:
o Drag Force: The r esist ance t o m ot ion caused by t he
int er act ion bet w een t he fluid and t he sur face of t he object .
o Lift Force: The for ce per pen dicular t o t he flow dir ect ion,
oft en used in applicat ions like w ings or sails, w her e t he
object ive is t o gener at e upw ar d or sidew ays for ces.

· Drag Force:  Lift Force:

o Drag is the force that resists the motion of a body o Lift is the force that acts perpendicular to the flow
through a fluid. It acts in the direction opposite to
the relative flow of the fluid and is mainly due to: direction, typically caused by pressure differences above
1. Frictional Forces: The viscosity of the fluid and below the surface of the object. Lift is significant in the
causes resistance as the fluid moves over the
surface. case of wings, blades, and aerodynamic surfaces.
2. Pressure Difference: The pressure difference o Importance in Aerodynamics: Lift can counteract gravity,
between the front and rear of the body
contributes to drag, as the fluid tries to "fill in" like the lift on an aircraft wing, or provide stability in
the low-pressure region behind the body. other applications such as automobiles.
Drag Forces in Fluids – Types: Friction Drag,
Pressure Drag, Form Drag
 Types of Drag Forces:
o Friction Drag:
 Caused by the viscosity of the fluid and the friction
between the fluid and the surface of the object .
 A ffect s the thin layer of fluid closest to the surface
(boundary layer).
 Increased surface roughness increases friction drag.
o Pressure Drag:
 Result of the pressure difference between the front
and rear of the object .
 Form Drag(a type of pressure drag) is the drag that
occurs due to the shape of the object and how the
fluid flows around it.
 More streamlined shapes reduce form drag by
allowing the fluid to flow smoothly over the surface,
minimizing the low- pressure wake behind the
object .
o Total Drag:
 The tot al drag is the sum of the friction drag and
pressure drag (including form drag).
 Real-World Applications:
o Automotive Design:

 Cars and trucks are designed with aerodynamics in

mind to minimize drag and improve fuel efficiency.
Streamlining the shape of the vehicle, reducing
surface roughness, and optimizing the angle of
attack of component s like mirrors and spoilers help
reduce both friction and pressure drag.
o Aircraft Design:
 A ircraft wings are designed to minimize drag while
maximizing lift. The shape of the wing and its
surface smoothness are critical factor s in
determining the drag on the aircraft.
o Marine Engineering:
 Ships are designed to reduce form drag by using
streamlined hulls that minimize the wake behind
the vessel. This allows the ship to move more
efficient ly through the water, reducing fuel
consumption.
Mathematical Application: Drag Force
Calculation (Drag Coefficient Approach
• Case Study 1: Automotive Aerodynamics – How Drag
Affects Vehicle Fuel Efficiency, Role of Spoilers
o Imagine a vehicle with the following parameters:
 Vehicle Speed: 3 0 m/ s
 Drag Coefficient (): 0 .3 5
 Frontal Area (): 5 m²
 Air Density (): 1 .2 25 kg/ m³
 The drag force is calculated as:
Case Study 2: Ventilation System Design in Industrial
Plants – Airflow Control for Cooling Systems
• Engineers apply the concepts of external flow to optimize the movement of air
through ductwork of HVACand around machinery. The goal is to maintain a constan
flow rate that provides effective cooling without excessive energy consumption.
• Airflow is often directed through
Case Study 3: Ship Hull Resistance in Marine
Engineering – Drag Reduction Strategies
Hydrodynamic Drag: The resistance a ship experiences as it
moves through water.
Frictional Resistance: Caused by the water's viscosity,
which leads to friction between the hull surface and the
water.
Form Resistance: Due to the shape of the hull, including
the pressure differences along the hull's surface and the
flow separation that occurs.
Wave Resistance: The creation of waves as the ship
moves through the water, which leads to additional
resistance.
Case Study 3: Ship Hull Resistance in Marine
Engineering – Drag Reduction Strategies
Drag Reduction Strategies in Marine Engineering:
oHull Design Optimization:
Streamlining: Engineers optimize the hull shape by making it more streamlined,
similar to how aerodynamics work for vehicles. Streamlined shapes reduce the wake
turbulence and minimize drag.
Smoothing Hull Surfaces: A smooth hull surface reduces frictional resistance by
minimizing the contact area between the water and the hull. This is achieved
through advanced coatings and maintenance techniques.
Bulbous Bows: These are forward projections under the waterline, designed to
reduce wave resistance by altering the water flow around the hull and improving
fuel efficiency.
Hydrodynamic Coatings: Special coatings are applied to reduce frictional
resistance. These materials reduce the drag by providing smoother surfaces that
cause less turbulence.
Hull Form Factors: Modifications to the hull's shape (e.g., flatter or more rounded
profiles) can significantly affect how water flows around the ship, reducing
resistance.
Case Study 3: Ship Hull Resistance in Marine
Engineering – Drag Reduction Strategies
Drag Reduction Strategies in Marine Engineering:
oHull Design Optimization:
Streamlining: Engineers optimize the hull shape by making it more streamlined,
similar to how aerodynamics work for vehicles. Streamlined shapes reduce the wake
turbulence and minimize drag.
Smoothing Hull Surfaces: A smooth hull surface reduces frictional resistance by
minimizing the contact area between the water and the hull. This is achieved
through advanced coatings and maintenance techniques.
Bulbous Bows: These are forward projections under the waterline, designed to
reduce wave resistance by altering the water flow around the hull and improving
fuel efficiency.
Hydrodynamic Coatings: Special coatings are applied to reduce frictional
resistance. These materials reduce the drag by providing smoother surfaces that
cause less turbulence.
Hull Form Factors: Modifications to the hull's shape (e.g., flatter or more rounded
profiles) can significantly affect how water flows around the ship, reducing
resistance.
Case Study 3: Ship Hull Resistance in Marine
Engineering – Drag Reduction Strategies
Additional Strategies for Drag Reduction:
oAir Lubrication: Some ships use air lubrication systems, where air
bubbles are injected under the hull to reduce frictional resistance. The
air acts as a lubricant, reducing the contact between the hull and
water.
oDynamic Stabilizers: These reduce the energy required to maintain
stability in rough seas, indirectly reducing the drag forces
experienced.
Case Study 3: Ship Hull Resistance in Marine
Engineering – Drag Reduction Strategies
To calculate the drag force on a ship, we use the drag equation for hydrodynamics:
For a ship with the following characteristics:
- Speed V = 15 {m/s}
- Water density= 1000 kg/m}^3
- Drag coefficient C_d = 0.1
- Wetted surface area A = 200 {m}^2,
the drag force would be:
Common Experimental Techniques in External Flow
– Wind Tunnels & Flow Visualization
• Experimental Methods to Study External Flow:
oWind Tunnels – Simulating real-world aerodynamic
conditions
oFlow Visualization Techniques – Smoke, dye, and
particle tracking
oPressure and Velocity Measurements – Using Pitot
tubes, hot-wire anemometry, and laser Doppler
velocimetry
oComputational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) – Digital
simulation of fluid flow
1 . Wind Tunnels: The Most Widely Used Exper imental Tool

 Definition: A wind tunnel is a controlled testing facility where

air is made to flow over a stationary object to simulate
real- world aerodynamic condit ions.
 Types of Wind Tunnels:
o Subsonic Wind Tunnels (for low- speed testing – vehicles,
sports equipment)
o Supersonic & Hypersonic Wind Tunnels (for high- speed
aircraft and space vehicles)
 Working Principle:
o A ir is drawn or pushed through the tunnel.
o The test model (such as a car or an aircraft wing) is placed
inside the test section.
o Sensors measure forces like drag and lift, as well as
pressure distributions.

Example Applications:

 Automotive Industry: Optimizing car aerodynamics to reduce

drag and improve fuel efficiency.
 Aerospace Engineering: Testing aircraft wings to ensure stability
and efficiency.
 Sports Science: Improving the aerodynamics of bicycles, helmets,
and running shoes.
2. Flow Visualization Techniques
· These techniques help engineers observe how air moves around an object. They reveal
turbulence, flow separation, and wake formation.

Common Flow Visualization Methods:

1. Smoke or Dye Injection
o Used in wind or water tunnels to visualize flow patterns.
o Helps detect turbulent vs. laminar flow regions.
2. Oil Flow Visualization
o Thin oil is spread on an object's surface.
o The airflow moves the oil, showing surface flow direction and stagnation points.
3.Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV)
oUses laser and fine particles to measure velocity distribution in the flow field.
oProvides highly accurate aerodynamic data.
3. Pr essur e & Velocity Measur ement Techniques

 Engineers use specialized tools to measure the forces acting on

an object in fluid flow.
 Key Measurement Instruments:
o Pitot Tubes: Measure stagnation and static pressure to
determine velocity.
o Hot- Wire Anemometry: Measures airspeed by detecting
temperature changes.
o Laser Doppler Velocimetry (LDV): Uses laser beams to
measure flow velocity at specific points.
4 . Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) – Digital

Alter native to Exper iments

 What is CFD?
o A numerical method that simulates fluid flow using
mathematical models.
o Can predict airflow behavior, pressure distribution, and
drag/ lift forces.
 Advantages of CFD Over Physical Testing:
o Cheaper and faster than wind tunnel testing.
o A llows testing in extreme conditions (high- speed,
temperature variations).

Provides detailed data (e.g., pressure cont ours, velocity vectors).

Case Study 4 – Wind Turbine Blade Design

Introduction to Wind Turbine Aerodynamics

Lift and Drag Forces in Blade Design
Optimization Strategies for Efficiency
Real-World Example of Wind Turbine Blade
Improvements
Intr oduction to Wind Tur bine Blade Design

 Wind turbines conver t wind energy into mechanical power

using rotating blades.
 The efficiency of a wind turbine depends on its aerodynamic
design, particularly how it optimizes lift and minimizes drag.
 Blade shape, angle of attack, and airfoil design direct ly affect
power generation.
1. Lift and Dr ag For ces in Wind Tur bine Blades

 Wind turbine blades function similarly to aircraft wings, relying

on lift to generate rotation.
 Lift Force (F_L):
o Created by pressure differences across the blade surface
due to airflow.
o Helps in rotating the turbine efficient ly.
 Drag Force (F_D):
o Resists motion and can reduce the turbine's efficiency.
o Needs to be minimized through aerodynamic
optimization.
2. Optimization Str ategies for Wind Tur bine Blades

To maximize efficiency, engineers focus on:

1 . Blade Shape and Airfoil Design

o Using aerodynamic profiles similar to aircraft wings to
enhance lift.
o Thinner trailing edges reduce drag.
2 . Blade Length and Aspect Ratio
o Longer blades capture more wind energy.
o A high aspect ratio (longer and thinner) improves
efficiency.
3 . Angle of Attack Optimization
o A djusting the blade pitch (angle of attack) ensures
maximum lift with minimal drag.
4 . Use of Composite Materials
o Lightweight materials reduce gravitational and struct ural
stress.
3. Real- Wor ld Example: Wind Tur bine Efficiency

Impr ovements

 Before Optimization:
o Older wind turbines had simple blade designs with high
drag.
o Less power output due to inefficient aerodynamics.
 After Optimization:
o Moder n turbines use advanced airfoil designs and active
pitch control.
o Efficiency increased by 20- 30%, leading to higher energy
product ion.
o Example: Siemens’ advanced turbine blades that generate
more power with optimized aerodynamics.
Case Study 5 – Aerodynamic Optimization of a
Delivery Van
1 . Pr oblem Intr oduction

 A logistics company wants to improve the fuel efficiency of its

delivery vans.
 The company suspects that high aerodynamic drag is increasing
fuel consumption.
 The engineer ing team is tasked with analyzing and optimizing
the van’s aerodynamics.

What Students Must Do:

1 . Calculate the drag force acting on the vehicle.

2 . Suggest aerodynamic modifications to reduce drag.
3 . Estimate the new drag force if the drag coefficient is lowered.
2. Given Data for Analysis

The following parameters are given:

 Vehicle speed () = 3 0 m/ s
 Air density () = 1 .2 25 kg/ m³
 Drag coefficient () = 0 .3 5
 Frontal area () = 5 m²
3. Dr ag For ce Calculation

Formula for Drag Force:

F_d = \frac{1}{2} \rho V^2 C_d A

Substituting the given values:

F_d = \frac{1}{2} (1.225) (30^2) (0.35) (5)

F_d = \frac{1}{2} \times 1.225 \times 900 \times 0.35 \times 5

F_d = 321.56 \, N

Result:

The current drag force acting on the vehicle is 321.56 N.

4. Effects of Dr ag Reduction on Fuel Effi ciency

If the drag coefficient is reduced to 0.30, the new drag force is:
4. Effects of Dr ag Reduction on Fuel Effi ciency

If the drag coefficient is reduced to 0.30, the new drag force is:

F_d = \frac{1}{2} \times 1.225 \times 900 \times 0.30 \times 5

F_d = 275.63 \, N

 Drag force decreases from 321.56 N to 275.63 N, a reduction

of 14.3%.
 Lower drag → less engine power needed → reduced fuel
consumption.
 In highway driving, aerodynamic drag account s for up to 50%
of fuel consumption.