Chapter Four

Learning &
Transfer of Training

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 Objectives (1)
O Discuss the five types of learner
outcomes
O Explain the implications of learning
theory for instructional design
O Incorporate adult learning theory into
the design of a training program
O Describe how learners receive,
process, store, retrieve, and act upon
information
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Hill Education.
 Objectives (2)
O Discuss the internal conditions (within
the learner) and external conditions
(learning environment) necessary for
the trainee to learn each type of
capability
O Discuss the implications of open and
closed skills and near and far transfer
for designing training programs

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 Objectives (3)
O Explain the features of instruction and
the work environment that are
necessary for learning and transfer of
training

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 Learning & Transfer
O Both learning and transfer are
important

O Learning refers to a relatively

permanent change in human
capabilities

O Transfer refers to trainees applying

what they have learned to their jobs
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 Two Types of Transfer
O Generalization refers to applying what
was learned to situations that are
similar but not identical to those in
training
O Maintenance refers to trainees
continuing to use what they learned
over time

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 Model of Learning &
Transfer
Insert Figure 4.1

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 Learning Outcomes (1)
O Verbal Information
o specialized knowledge, including
names, labels, facts, and bodies of
knowledge
O Intellectual Skills
o concepts and rules critical to solve
problems, serve customers, and
create products
O Motor Skills
o coordination of physical movements
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 Learning Outcomes (2)
O Attitudes
o beliefs and feelings that predispose
a person to behave in a certain way

O Cognitive Strategies
o strategies that regulate thinking
and learning
o they relate to decisions regarding
what information to attend to, how
to remember, and how to solve
problems
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 Learning Theories
Social
Reinforceme Goal
Learning
nt Theory Theories
Theory

Adult
Need Expectancy
Learning
Theories Theory
Theory

Information
Processing
Theory
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 Reinforcement Theory (1)
O Individuals are motivated to perform
or avoid behaviors because of past
outcomes of behavior
O Trainers need to identify what
outcomes learners find most positive
and negative and then link these
outcomes to acquiring new knowledge
and skills

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 Reinforcement Theory (2)
O Positive reinforcement is a pleasurable
outcome resulting from a behavior
O Negative reinforcement is the removal
of an unpleasant outcome
O Extinction is withdrawing positive or
negative reinforcers to eliminate a
behavior
O Punishment involves providing an
unpleasant outcome after a behavior
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 Social Learning Theory (1)
O Individuals learn by observing models
of behavior, emulating behavior, and
receiving reinforcement and rewards
O Learning results from directly
experiencing the consequences of
using a skill, observing others, and
seeing the consequences of their
behavior

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 Social Learning Theory (2)
O Four processes involved in learning
o Attention
o Retention
o Motor reproduction
o Motivational processes

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 Social Learning Theory (3)
O Self-efficacy is important
o an individual’s belief that he/she
can successfully learn knowledge
and skills
O Self-efficacy can be increased
through:
o verbal persuasion
o logical verification
o modeling
o past accomplishment
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 Goal Orientation (1)
O Learning orientation relates to trying
to increase ability and competence in
a task
o People with a learning orientation
view mistakes as useful for learning

O Performance orientation refers to a

desire to look good in comparison to
others
o Individuals with a performance
orientation avoid mistakes because
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they do not want to appear foolish

Hill Education.
 Goal Orientation (2)
O Trainers should strive to promote a
learning orientation among trainees
o Set goals around experimentation
o Deemphasize competition
o Create a community of learning
o Provide constructive feedback when
trainees make mistakes

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 Maslow’s Hierarchy
Self-Actualization

Esteem

Social

Safety

Physiological

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 Alderfer’s Theory
O Existence
o physical needs such as food,
clothing, and shelter
O Relatedness
o interpersonal needs in personal and
professional settings
O Growth
o needs for personal development

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 McClelland’s Theory
O Need for achievement
o need to achieve challenging goals,
prove something, and recognition
O Need for power
o need to dominate and influence
others
O Need for affiliation
o need to be a part of something and
desire social relationships
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 Needs Theory Implications
O Trainers should attempt to understand
learners’ needs, explain how training
will meet needs, and adapt training
O If certain basic needs are not met,
motivation may suffer
O Training should not necessarily
attempt to meet all needs, however

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 Expectancy Theory (1)

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 Expectancy Theory (2)
O Based on this model, trainers should:
o ensure trainees are confident in
their ability (expectancy)
o provide and communicate valued
rewards (valence)
o ensure valued rewards are received
if trainees successfully learn and
transfer (instrumentality)

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 Adult Learning Theory
O Adults have the need to know “why”
O Adults have a need to be self-directed
O Adults bring more work-related
experiences to the learning situation
O Adults enter a learning experience
with a problem-centered approach
O Adults are extrinsically and
intrinsically motivated

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 Adult Learning Implications
O Mutual planning and collaboration
O Use learner experiences for examples
and applications
O Develop instruction based on learners’
interests and competencies
O Provide opportunities for application
O Ensure training is problem centered

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 Information Processing
Theory

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 Closed v. Open Skills
O Transfer can be enhanced by
understanding the type of skill
O Closed Skills
o Involve responding to predictable
situations with standardized
responses
O Open Skills
o Involve responding to variable
situations with adaptive responses
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 Closed Skills
O Promoting transfer for closed skills:
o provide detailed checklists to follow
o provide high-fidelity practice
o shape favorable attitudes toward
compliance
o reward compliance

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 Open Skills
O Promoting transfer for open skills:
o teach general principles
o shape favorable attitudes toward
experimentation
o allow trainees to make mistakes
without fear of punishment
o provide rewards for
experimentation

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 Theory of Identical
Elements
O Transfer will be maximized when the
tasks, materials, and equipment in
training are similar to the work
environment
O Identical elements are particularly
important for promoting near transfer,
applying learned capabilities exactly
to the work situation

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 Stimulus Generalization
O Transfer is enhanced when the most
important features, or general
principles, are emphasized during
training
O The stimulus generalization approach
is appropriate to promote far transfer,
applying learned capabilities to the
work environment when it is not
identical to training
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 Cognitive Theory of Transfer
O Transfer depends on a trainee’s ability
to retrieve learned capabilities
O Meaningful material and coding
schemes enhance storage and recall
of training

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 Mental & Physical Processes (1)
O Learning depends on the learner’s
cognitive processes, organizing the
content in a mental representation,
and relating the content to existing
knowledge from long-term memory

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 Mental & Physical Processes (2)
O Learning is a function of eight
processes:
o expectancy
o perception
o working storage
o semantic encoding
o long-term storage
o retrieval
o generalizing
o gratifying
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 Learning Strategies
O Different learning strategies influence
how training content is coded
o rehearsal: learning through
repetition
o organizing: finding similarities and
themes
o elaboration: relating the material to
other more familiar knowledge

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 The Learning Cycle
O Learning can be considered a dynamic
cycle involving four stages
o concrete experience: trainees
encounter a concreate experience
o reflective observation: trainees
think about the problem
o abstract conceptualization: trainees
generate ideas how to solve the
problem
o active experimentation: trainees
implementation ideas to solve the
problem
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 Employees need to know the objectives

O An objective may have three

components
o what the learner is expected to do
or know
o quality or level of acceptable
performance
o conditions under which the learner
is expected to perform

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 Employees need meaningful
content
O Content should be linked to current job
experiences and tasks that have
meaning
O Material should be presented using
familiar concepts, terms, and
examples
O Content should be aligned with
personal and professional goals
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 Employees need to practice

O Practice should:
o involve the trainee actively
o include overlearning
o take the appropriate amount of time
o include the appropriate unit of
learning

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 Employees need a number of
pre-practice conditions
O Provide strategies that will result in the
greatest learning
O Encourage trainees to reflect
O Provide advanced organizers
O Help trainees set challenging learning
goals
O Create realistic expectations for trainees
O For training in teams, clarify roles and
responsibilities
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 Employees need practice
involving experience
O Learners need practice involving direct
experience
O Overlearning is needed, which involves
continuing to practice the new skill or
behavior beyond the point at which the
learner has demonstrated proficiency
more than once
O Incorporate errors in the learning
process
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 Massed vs. Spaced Practice
O Massed practice involves practicing
continuously without rest
O With spaced practice, individuals are
given rest intervals within the practice
session
O Effectiveness of massed versus spaced
practice varies by the characteristics of
the task
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 Whole vs. Part Practice
O One option with practice is focusing on
all tasks at the same time (whole
practice)
O Another option is practicing each
component as soon as it is introduced
in a training program (part practice)
O Trainers should incorporate both types

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 Employees need to commit
content to memory
O Make trainees aware of how they are
creating, processing, and accessing
memory
O Training programs must be explicit on
content and elaborate on details
O Overlearning can help

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 Employees need feedback
O Employees need feedback about how
well they are meeting training
objectives
O Feedback should be specific and follow
the behavior as closely as possible

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 Employees learn through
observation, experience, and
interaction
O Individuals learn through observation
and imitating the actions of models
O Trainers should promote three key types
of interaction:
o Learner-content
o Learner-instructor
o Learner-learner

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 Employees need the training
program to be properly
coordinated and arranged
O Communicate courses to employees
O Prepare instructional materials
O Arrange the training facility and room
O Testing equipment that will be used
O Provide support during instruction
O Distribute evaluation materials

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 Encourage trainee responsibility
and self-management
O Self-management refers to a person’s
attempt to control aspects of decision
making and behavior
O Self-management training involves
setting goals to use skills on the job,
identifying obstacles and ways to
overcome them, and self-administering
rewards
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 Ensure a supportive work
environment
O Characteristics of a positive climate for
transfer include:
o Supervisors and coworkers encourage
transfer
o Task cues to use new skills
o Lack of punishment for using new skills
o Extrinsic reinforcement consequences
o Intrinsic reinforcement consequences

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 Internal & External
Conditions
O Internal conditions are processes
within the learner that are necessary
for learning
O External conditions are processes in
the learning environment that are
necessary for learning
O External conditions should directly
influence forms of instruction, and
they should be designed to facilitate
the internal conditions
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