The Universe

Gregory Shook
 Beginnings of Astronomy

Since the 4th century, BCE, civilizations
have monitored and measured the
movements of celestial bodies

The Greeks knew the Earth was round and
an approximation of its circumference

The heliocentric world view (sun centered)
didn't come about until the 15th century by
Nicolaus Copernicus
 Beginnings of Astronomy

In the 16th centrury, Galieo Galilei improved
the telescope, and more data was able to
be collected

This led to calculating the planets' orbits
and proving they are elliptical, not circular

In the 17th century, Isaac Newton's laws on
gravity provide an explanation for these
orbits

Further knowledge such as the speed of
light, distance to the sun, and the Earth's
radius were discovered
 Beginnings of Astronomy

In the 19th century, Joseph von Frunhofer
discovered the spectral lines in the
spectrum of sunlight

This led to other scientists being able to
establish spectral analysis and study the
chemical and physical characteristics of
stars and other celestial bodies

In the 20th century, nuclear fusion was
proposed as the fuel for stars and theories
about the formation and development of the
universe were proposed
 Astronomy Today

Light is still primarily what astronomers
study today, but now its more than visible
light

New technology allows us to see more of
the spectrum such as particle radiation, x-
ray, radio waves, infrared, ultraviolet, and
gamma radiation

Mathematics and physics are closely
related to modern astronomy
 Astronomy Today

Subdivisions include
 Astrometry and celestial mechanics:
Measure and calculate the positions and
orbits of celestial bodies
 Astrophysics: Examines bodies'
characteristics such as strength of
magnetic fields, temperatures, densities,
and compositions for their formation and
development
 Cosmology studies the formation and
development of the universe as a whole
 Astronomy Today

Instruments have changed, radio
telescopes, radar technology, sophisticated
telescopes such as the Hubble

Earth's atmosphere blocks the majority of
radiation, so balloons, aircraft, rockets, and
space travel are used to reduce this effect
“Rockstars” of Modern Astronomy
 Speed of Light

Light travels 186,282 miles/second in a
vacuum

We measure celestial bodies' distances
using the time it takes light to travel

Usually Light Years (LY), which is almost
5.9 trillion miles
 The Structure of the Universe

The matter of the universe is not evenly
distributed, it is influenced by gravity and
shaped in many ways

Glowing points of matter (stars) are visible

Many stars make up our spiral-shaped
Milky Way galaxy (100k LY across)

Milky Way is part of a group of galaxies
called the Local Group (100 million LY)

The Local Group and others like it make up
superclusters (1 billion LY)
 The Structure of the Universe

Stars tend to be a few light years apart
(The closest star system to our own is a
triple star system called Alpha Centauri, is
about 4.3 LY away)
 The Structure of the Universe

The huge scale of the distances involved,
we can only use indirect methods to
measure the structure of the universe,
assumptions must be made

The big bang theory, the universe evolved
from an extremely condensed primeval
state, is the accepted model

We use redshift of light emitted from stars
to measure cosmic distances
 Survey of the Universe

If 2 objects radiate with the same intensity
(luminosity) then the closer object will
appear brighter

Therefore, if a star's luminosity is known,
then its distance can be calculated using its
brightness

Though luminosity isn't always obvious, the
value can be determined for certain stars
(Standard Candles) and use it to estimate
their distance from Earth
 Survey of the Universe

Cepheids are giant, bright stars that pulse
regularly. Their fluctuation periods are
dependent on their size and luminosity.
These pulses can be measured and are
useful for gauging distances in a galaxy

White dwarf stars that explode extremely
bright as a supernova in binary star
systems can also be used but to gauge
distances to remote galaxies
 Survey of the Universe

Starlight, just like sunlight, can be
partitioned into prismatic colors using a
spectrometer

Gas layers of stars absorb certain
wavelengths, causing dark absorption lines
to break up the spectrum

Almost all galaxies have absorption lines
that a shifted to longer (red) wavelengths

This redshift is greater the further away a
galaxy, explained by the expanding
universe
 Survey of the Universe

As space expands, light wavelengths also
stretch, so the longer light travels the more
stretched it becomes

If the redshift of a galaxy is known, its
distance can be calculated, called the
Hubble Constant

Assuming the rate of the expanding
universe is known
 Survey of the Universe

Other effects can cause a redshift, such as
a galaxy moving away from us

Doesn't explain all redshift though, because
otherwise implies our galaxy special and
all others moving away, when some
moving towards as well

Proposed that light will lose energy along
its long path and turn more red for this
reason

No generally accepted explanation for
redshift has been agreed on
 The Big Bang Theory

The Universe as a condensed, primeval
state evolving to what we have today

Believed to be very condensed, measuring
only a few millimeters as radiation
continuously turned into particles of matter,
and back

Universe expanded rapidly, but there was
no 'explosion' since there was no
surrounding space for the explosive power
to move to, space simply expanded
 The Big Bang Theory

As the universe swelled, it became cooler
and less energy was emitted by radiation

The original matter slowly formed the
building blocks of atoms (about 10 seconds
after the Big Bang, protons and neutrons
could combine to form the first stable and
lightweight nuclei

Radiant energy became too weak to
separate the particles
 The Big Bang Theory

After further cooling, the nuclei were able to
attract electrons, forming the first few
atoms a few hudreds of thousands of years
after the Big Bang

The universe became more transparent,
radiation could now pass through space
without barriers, since only a few
electronically charged particles were still
floating around
 The Big Bang Theory

Today, we can measure cosmic
background radiation in any direction

Thought to be the initial radiation given off
in the early phases of the Universe

The decrease in radiative pressure allowed
gravity to take over, forming large
accumulations of matter around 100 million
years after The Big Bang

Later, the first stars and galaxies began to
form
 The Big Bang Theory

The Big Bang Theory is based around quantum field
theory, Einstein's theory of relativity, and
cosmological principle

Quantum field theory describes the characteristics
and forces of elementary particles

Einstein's theory of relativity explains gravity the
warping of space-time, using a mathematical model
to create a close connection between the 3
dimensions of space and time

Space-time is warped by material, and this warp
determines the movement of material
 The Big Bang Theory

The cosmological principle states that, on
the large scale, material is generally
distributed evenly throughout the Universe,
although locally distinct structures may be
obvious

Taken together, these 3 assumptions result
in the mathematical expansion of the
Universe
 Dark Matter and Dark Energy

A large amount of matter is found between
the stars, it doesn't emit, reflect, or swallow
light. Its mass is by far larger than normal
matter

Only obvious due to its gravity influencing
other matter
 Dark Matter and Dark Energy

Galaxies don't rotate the way we'd expect.
Their masses can be estimated from their
stars and dust clouds and the results
suggest that velocity of a star's circulation
should decrease the further from the
center. However, spiral galaxies show a
constant velocity regardless of distance

Could be explained by dark matter, whose
mass is 10x that of normal matter
 Dark Matter and Dark Energy

Gravitational lenses are another indicator
of dark matter

Galaxy clusters bend the light of other
galaxies far behind them, like a magnifying
glass. The mass of a galaxy cluster can be
determined by the degree of light
refraction, which tend to be much greater
than can be explained by their stars and
gas clouds
 Dark Matter and Dark Energy

The uniform background radiation which
indicates a uniform distribution of matter

Far more condensed mass would have
been necessary for galaxies to form than is
present

Dark matter believed to be involved, though
how it reached a sufficient level of density
is unknown

Believed to be dark celestial bodies or
unknown elementary particles
 Dark Matter and Dark Energy

Astronomers trying to measure the speed
of cosmic expansion have discovered that
it is accelerating, not decelerating as
predicted

Dark energy has been suggested as a
possible accelerator

Theoretically, fits mathematically with the
theory of relativity

Could be another natural force or
fundamental characteristic of space
 Galaxies

Roughly 100 billion stars, gas, and dust
form a galaxy

Vary in shape, from elliptical to spiral to
irregular

Held together by the gravity of its parts

These forces compel the stars and matter
to rotate around the galactic center
 Galaxies

Found together in large numbers called clusters, or
smaller amounts called groups

The spiral arms of a galaxy are formed by groups of
stars in the galactic disk like air compressions
caused by sound waves

Matter much more concentrated in these areas,
resulting in more new stars from the interstellar gas,
resulting in the arms being much brighter than the
surrounding areas

Spiral galaxy rotates around the core, but arms do
not actually wind because they are not made up of
specific stars, stars move into and out of the spiral
arm zones
 Galaxies

When galaxies pass near each other or
converge, they can reshape each other due
to their gravitational properties

Paths of individual stars may be deflected
or in rare cases, converge

A dwarf galaxy will generally dissolve into a
larger, while those of similar sizes retain
their cores
 Galaxies

A very fine distribution of matter is between the stars

Either ejected by stars or remnants of their intitial
formation

Gases such as helium and hydrogen, dust mainly
silicates and graphite

Clouds of this matter form nebulas

Emission nebulas gain radiation from nearby stars
and heat the gas to make light

Reflection nebulas are illuminated by starlight
reflecting off dust

A nebula that absorbs starlight looks like a dark cloud
 The Milky Way System

Our sun and solar system are part of the
Milky Way Galaxy

A shimmering band of light can be seen on
a clear night with good visibility

We cannot see it from the outside, but we
can try and measure the distances
between its stars
 The Milky Way System

The Milky Way wasn't understood until infrared
and radio frequencies were found due to the
opaque interstellar dust it contains

Turns out it is a relatively large spiral arm galaxy

We are on one of the spiral arms, near the outer
region

The outer layer is called the galactic halo, made
up of 'globular' clusters of ancient stars
 The Milky Way System

Star types can be done based on
composition, age, and distribution in space

Youngest are in the symmetrical sections
of the spiral arms and a relatively high
concentration of heavy chemical elements

These elements made by older generations
of stars in the fusion of their nuclear fuel

As they weakened, some of the matter was
ejected into space and later incorporated
into new stars
 The Milky Way System

Middle aged stars are found on the galactic
disk

The oldest stars in the globular clusters
contain the least amount of heavy chemical
elements

Likely they were formed when the galactic
matter collected
 The Milky Way System

To locate the center of the Milky Way, we look
towards the Sagittarius Constellation

Center is shrouded in thick, interstellar matter
that blocks our vision

Structure can be explored using infrared, x-rays
and radio waves

Stars distributed more thickly in the center,
equivalent to 3 million sun-sized masses
concentrated in a tight space

Suspected a large concentration of matter has
collected, a black hole
 The Birth of a Star

The cradles of stars are huge molecular
clouds in space made up of mostly
hydrogen and some heavier elements from
earlier stars

Thicker areas in the cloud come together,
attracted by their mass

As more collects, they begin to rotate

These balls of gas are known as protostars
 The Birth of a Star

Due to enormous pressure, the core becomes
extremely hot

Depending on mass, can reach up to several
million degrees F

At these temperatures, some hydrogen atoms
lose their electron shells and the unprotected
nuclei collide, fusing to form helium and giving off
large amounts of energy

The greater the mass of the protostar, the more
active these reactions until it shines as a new star
 The Birth of a Star

After nuclear fusion starts, the star settles
into a stable form, its interior pressure is
high enough to counteract gravity, so that
the forces generated and released are
balanced

This relatively calm phase is known as the
main sequence, which our sun is in now,
goes on until the hydogen fuel at its core is
exhausted
 The Diversity of Stars

Stars can be classified by their size, color,
and brightness

Binary (2) star systems and multiple star
systems do exist

Due to forming in large clouds of matter,
groups of stars can also form

If a star cluster's mass isn't sufficient, the
stars can drift apart
 The Diversity of Stars

A star's color depends on its surface
temperature

Hotter stars emit more shorter wavelength
light than cooler ones

Hottest stars burn blue-white

Our sun burns at 9932F, giving a yellow
glow

Cooler stars at 1832F are reddish orange

A star changes colors throughout its life
 The Diversity of Stars

Most stars are cool and dim, called red dwarves,
about 8-50% of the mass of our sun

Astronomical objects with even less mass do not
become hot enough to ignite, called brown
dwarves

The upper limits of a star's mass are unknown, a
few stars with more than 100x the sun's mass are
known but are unstable, short-lived, and rare.
Hidden behind the clouds of gas they emit, it is
unknown if they are single or double stars
 Dying Stars

Once the hydrogen is all fused to helium,
the core contracts and heats up

The outer layers begin to undergo fusion

Star inflates to what's known as a red giant,
swallowing up its planets

Glows red due to its energy being spread
over a large surface

Center can reach 180 million F
 Dying Stars

In the center, helium fuses into carbon and
oxygen

Casts off its gaseous envelope to make
planetary nebulae and the carbon-oxygen
core remains to form a white dwarf

White dwarf doesn't undergo heat-
generating reactions, so it collapses to be
extremely dense
 Dying Stars

Stars 10x the mass of our sun and larger
become so dense and hot that heavier
elements undergo fusion

Carbon, neon, oxygen, and silicon undergo
fusion

The formation of elements heavier than
iron consumes rather than produces
energy, thus hastening the star's collapse
 Dying Stars

When the energy is gone, it collapses and
explodes in a giant supernova

For a few days, it shines brighter than its
home galaxy

In the core, the atomic components are
compressed to such an extreme that
electrons and protons are converted to
neutrons

One teaspoonful of this matter has the mas
s of abut 1 billion small cars
 Dying Stars

The neutron star revolves as such a high
speed and emits pulsar radio waves (the
Crab Nebula pulsar revolves around 30x
per second)

If the neutron star is 3-15x the size of the
sun, it undergoes a more radical
gravitational collapse and becomes a black
hole, an area of space with so much gravity
matter and light cannot escape it
 The Starry Sky

The sky is always full of stars, even during the day
(the sun just outshines them and they aren't visible)

The stars and planets visible in the night sky change
with the annual movement of the Earth around the
sun

People have tried finding order in the stars, and
traced lines between bright stars to draw figures of
their gods and mythological characters

Every culture developed its own constellations,
however the International Astronomical Union
recognizes 88 standard constellations
 The Starry Sky

The celestial poles are points in the
celestial sphere in the direction of the
Earth's axis

The stars seem to rotate around the
celestial poles

Stars appear at differing brighnesses due
to their different intensities and distance

Planets are easy to find, they don't twinkle
at all or very little
 The Starry Sky

The twinkling of stars is caused by optical
inhomogeneities in the atmosphere due to
different temperatures of the air

Planets are so close to us they don't get
this effect, Venus, Mars , and Jupiter are
particuliarly easy to see due to their
brightness