Electronic

Ezequiel Tuyac
Giovanel Gentiles
Winz Kyle M. Jumalon
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Winz Kyle M. Jumalon
Digital
Circuits

Winz Kyle M. Jumalon

 Digital Circuits
The study of electronic circuits where the
inputs and outputs are limited to two fixed or
discrete values or logic levels is called digital
electronics. Digital technology would take
many volumes to do it justice, so in this text
we can only scratch the surface. There is a
place for both analog and digital circuits in
instrumentation. Sensors and instrumentation
functions are analog in nature.

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 Digital Circuits
However, the digital circuits have many
advantages over analog circuits. Analog
signals are easily converted to digital signals
using commercially available analog-to-digital
converters (ADC). In new designs, digital
circuits will be used wherever possible

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Digital Circuits
Some of the advantages of digital circuits are
■ Lower power requirements
■ More cost effective
■ Can transmit signals over long distances without loss of
accuracy and elimination of noise.
■ High-speed signal transmission
■ Memory capability for data storage
■ Controller and alpha numeric display compatible
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1.
Digital
Signals
Digital Signals
Digital signals are either high or
low logic levels. Most digital circuits
use a 5V supply. The logic low
(binary 0) level is from 0 to 1V, the
logic high (binary 1) level is from 2
to 5V; 1 to 2 V is an undefined
region, i.e., any voltage below 1 V is
considered a 0 level and any
voltage above 2 V is considered a 1
level.
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Digital Signals
In circuits where the supply
voltage is other than 5 V, a 0 level
is still considered as a 0 V level or
the output drivers are sinking
current, i.e., connecting the output
terminal to ground, and a 1 level is
close to the supply voltage or the
output drivers are sourcing current,
i.e., connecting the output terminal
to the supply rail.
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2.
Binary
Numbers
Binary Numbers
We use the decimal system (base
10) for mathematical functions, whereas
electronics uses the binary system (base
2) to perform the same functions. The
rules are the same when performing
calculations using either of the two
numbering systems (to the base 10 or 2).

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Binary Numbers
Table 4.1 gives a comparison
between counting in the decimal and
binary systems. The least significant
bit (LSB) or unit number is the right-
hand bit. In the decimal system when
the unit numbers are used we go to
the tens, that is, 9 goes to 10, and
when the tens are used we go to the
hundreds, that is, 99 goes to 100 and
so forth. 12
Binary Numbers
The binary system is the same
when the 0 and 1 are used in the LSB
position, then we go to the next
position and so on, that is, 1 goes to
10,11 goes to 100, and 111 goes to
1000, and so forth. The only
difference is that, to represent a
number it requires more digits when
using a binary system than in the
decimal system.
Binary Numbers

Binary numbers can be easily converted to decimal numbers

by using the power value of the binary number. Table 4.2 gives the
power value of binary numbers versus their location from the LSB
and their decimal equivalent.
Note that when counting locations, the count starts at 0 and
not, as might be expected, at 1 14
Binary Numbers

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Binary Numbers

Each binary digit is called a bit, 4 bits are defined as a nibble, 8

bits form a byte, and 2 bytes or 16 bits are called a word. A word is often
broken down into 4 nibbles, where each nibble is represented by a
decade number plus letters as shown in Table 4.3. 16
Binary Numbers

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Binary Numbers
Binary circuits are synchronized by clock signals which
are referenced to very accurate crystal oscillators (< ±0.001
percent), using counters and dividers. The clock signal can be
used to generate very accurate delays and timing signals,
compared to RC-generated delays and timing which can have
tolerances of > ±10 percent, so that delays and timing will be
done almost entirely by digital circuits in new equipment.

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3.
Logic
Circuits
Logic Circuits
The basic building blocks in digital circuits are called gates. These
are buffer, inverter, AND, NAND, OR, NOR, XOR, and XNOR. These
basic blocks are interconnected to build functional blocks such as
encoders, decoders, adders, counters, registers, multiplexers,
demultiplexers, memories, and the like. The functional blocks are then
interconnected to make systems, i.e., calculators, computers,
microprocessors, clocks, function generators, transmitters, receivers,
digital instruments, ADC and digital-to-analog converters (DAC),
telephone systems and the like, to name a few.
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Logic Circuits

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Logic Circuits

Figure 4.12a shows the circuit of a complementary MOS (CMOS)

inverter. The circuit uses both N- and P-channel complementary
devices (note device symbols).
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Logic Circuits

Figure 4.12b shows the equivalent gate symbol. When the input to
the gate is low (0) the positive-channel MOS (PMOS) is “ON” and the
negative MOS (NMOS) is “OFF” so that the output is held high (1),
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Logic Circuits

and when the input is high (1) the PMOS is “OFF” and the NMOS
is “ON”, which will hold the output low (0), so that the input sign is
inverted at the output.
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Logic Circuits

One of the MOS devices is always “OFF”, so that the circuit draws
no current from the supply (except during switching) making CMOS
circuits very power efficient.
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4.
Analog-to-
digital
conversion
Analog-to-digital conversion

The amplitude of an analog signal

can be represented by a digital number,
for instance, an 8-bit word can represent
numbers up to 255, so that it can
represent an analog voltage or current
with an accuracy of 1 in 255 (assuming
the conversion is accurate to 1 bit) or
0.4 percent accuracy.

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Analog-to-digital conversion

Similarly a 10 and 12-bit word can

represent analog signals to accuracies
of 0.1 and 0.025 percent, respectively.
Commercial integrated A/D
converters are readily available for
instrumentation applications.

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Analog-to-digital conversion
Several techniques are used for the conversion of analog
signals–to digital signals. These are

➔ Flash converters
➔ Successive approximation
➔ Resistor ladder networks
➔ Dual slope converters

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Analog-to-digital conversion

Flash converters which are very fast and expensive with

limited accuracy, that is, 6-bit output with a conversion time of 33
ns. The device can sample an analog voltage 30 million times per
second.

Successive approximation is a high-speed, medium-cost

technique with good accuracy, that is, the most expensive device
can convert an analog voltage to 12 bits in 20 µs, and a less
expensive device can convert an analog signal to 8 bits in 30 µs.
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Analog-to-digital conversion

Resistor ladder networks are used in low-speed, medium-

cost converters. They have a 12-bit conversion time of about 5
ms.

Dual slope converters are low-cost, low-speed devices but

have good accuracy and are very tolerant of high noise levels in
the analog signal. A 12-bit conversion takes about 20 ms.

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Analog-to-digital conversion
Flash converters Resistor ladder networks

Successive approximation Dual slope converters

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Analog-to-digital conversion
Analog signals are constantly changing, so that for a converter to
make a measurement, a sample-and-hold technique is used to capture
the voltage level at a specific instant in time. Such a circuit is shown in
Fig. 4.13a, with the waveforms shown in Fig. 4.13b.

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Analog-to-digital conversion
The N-channel field effect transistor (FET) in the sample-and-hold
circuit has a low impedance when turned “ON” and a very high
impedance when turned “OFF”.

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Analog-to-digital conversion
The voltage across capacitor follows the input analog voltage when
the FET is “ON” and holds the dc level of the analog voltage when the
FET is turned “OFF”. During the “OFF” period the ADC measures the dc
level of the analog voltage and converts it into a digital signal.

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Analog-to-digital conversion
As the sampling frequency of the ADC is much higher than the
frequency of the analog signal, the varying amplitude of the analog
signal can be represented in a digital format during each sample
period and stored in memory. The analog signal can be
regenerated from the digital signal using a DAC.

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Analog-to-digital conversion
Figure 4.14a shows the block
diagram of the ADC 0804, a
commercial 8-bit ADC. The analog
input is converted to a byte of digital
information every few milliseconds.
An alternative to the ADC is the
voltage-to-frequency converter. In this
case the analog voltage is converted to
a frequency
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Analog-to-digital conversion

Commercial units such as the LM 331

shown in Fig. 4.14b are available for this
conversion. These devices have a linear
relation between voltage and frequency.
The operating characteristics of the
devices are given in the manufacturers’
data sheets

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Circuit
Consideration

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Circuit Consideration

Analog circuits can use either bipolar or

MOS-integrated amplifiers. Bipolar op-amps tend
to have a lower input dc offset, but MOS op-
amps have higher input impedance. Since a
large number of op-amps and special amplifiers
are available, the manufacturers’ data sheets
should be consulted to decide which amplifier is
best suited for a specific application.

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Circuit Consideration
Digital circuits can be divided by
the number of components integrated
onto a single silicon chip into small-
scale, medium-scale, and large-scale
integration. In small-scale integration
(up to 100 devices) such as the SN
54/74 family of digital circuits, both
bipolar and CMOS devices are used.

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Circuit Consideration

This family of devices contains gates

and small building blocks. Medium
scale integration (over 100,000
devices) will use only CMOS devices.
This is because of the excessive
power requirements, high dissipation,
and relatively large size of bipolar
devices. Such circuits contain large
building blocks on a single chip.
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Circuit Consideration

Large-scale integrated circuits

contain over 1,000,000 devices, and
use CMOS technology. These
devices are used for large
memories, microprocessors, and
microcontrollers, and such circuits
can contain several million devices.

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Circuit Consideration
Systems containing a large number
of gates are now using programmable
logic arrays (PLA) to replace the SN
54/74 gate family of devices, as one of
these devices can replace many gate
devices, requires less power, and can
be configured (programmed) by the
end user to perform all the required
system functions.

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Thank You
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