Biomedical Instrumentation

Chapter 2: Electrodes - Transducer - ECG

Dr. Thanh Nguyen
Email:
[email protected]
n
Office: Room 606 - Building A4 phenikaa-uni.edu.vn
Content
 Bio-potential electrodes
 Microelectrodes
 Skin surface electrodes
 Needle electrodes
 Biochemical transducers
 Transducers for biomedical applications
 Electro-conduction system of the heart
 ECG- electrodes and leads
 Einthoven triangle
 ECG read out devices
 ECG machine - block diagram.

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Biopotential Electrodes

 Bioelectric signals are picked up from the body using electrodes.

 Provide interface between the body and the electronic
instrumentation system.
 An electrode potential is developed across the interface, proportional
to the exchange of ions between the metal and the electrolytes of
the body.
 Current in body is carried by ion, whereas it is carried in electrode
and lead wire by electrons.
 Thus, the electrode must serve as a transducer to change ionic
current into an electronic current.

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Biopotential Electrodes

 The double layer of charge at the interface acts as a capacitor. Thus,

the equivalent circuit of biopotential electrode in contact with the
body consists of a voltage in series with a resistance-capacitance
network of the type shown in Figure.

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Biopotential Electrodes

 Since measurement of bioelectric potentials requires two electrodes,

the voltage measured is really the difference between the
instantaneous potentials of the two electrodes, as shown in Figure .

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Biopotential Electrodes

• Two Silver plates used as • Terminal Voltage between

biopotential electrodes on Silver and Copper
the surface of the skin Electrodes Half-cell
potential

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Biopotential Electrodes

 If the same type of electrodes are used, the potential difference is

usually small and depends on the actual difference of ionic potential
between the two points of the body.
 If the electrodes are different, the dc voltage generated which is
nothing but a electrode offset voltage. Which can cause an error in
the measurement.
 Some DC also produce in the same type of electrodes we use.
 To reduce that error by choice of materials, or by special treatment,
such as coating the electrodes by some electrolytic method to
improve stability.

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Biopotential Electrodes

 The DC voltage due to the difference in electrode potentials is called

the electrode offset voltage.
 The resulting current is often mistaken for a true physiological event.
 Even two electrodes of the same material may produce a small
electrode offset voltage.
 In addition to the electrode offset voltage, experiments have shown
that the chemical activity that takes place within an electrode can
cause voltage fluctuations to appear without any physiological input.
 Such variations may appear as noise on a bioelectric signal.

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Biopotential Electrodes

 This noise can be reduced by proper choice of materials or by special

treatment, such as coating the electrodes by some electrolytic method to
improve stability.
 Electrochemically, the silver-silver chloride (Ag-AgCl) electrode is very
stable.
 Ag-AgCl electrode is prepared by electrolytically coating a piece of pure
silver with silver chloride.

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Biopotential Electrodes

 The resistance-capacitance
networks represent the
impedance of the electrodes as
fixed values of resistance and
capacitance.
 The impedance is not constant.

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Biopotential Electrodes

 Impedance is frequency-dependent because of the effect of the

capacitance.
 Furthermore, both the electrode potential and the impedance are
varied by an effect called polarization.
 Polarization is the result of direct current passing through the metal
electrolyte interface.
 The effect is much like that of charging a battery with the polarity of
the charge opposing the flow of current that generates the charge.
 Some electrodes are designed to avoid or reduce polarization.

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Biopotential Electrodes
 If the amplifier to which the electrodes are connected has an
extremely high input impedance, the effect of polarization or any
other change in electrode impedance is minimized.
 Size and type of electrode are also important in determining the
electrode impedance.
 Larger electrodes tend to have lower impedances.
 Surface electrodes generally have impedances of 2 to 10kΩ, whereas
small needle electrodes and microelectrodes have much higher
impedances.
 Input impedance of the amplifier must be several times that of the
electrodes.

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Classifications

1. Microelectrodes: Electrodes used to measure bioelectric potentials

near or within a single cell.
2. Skin surface electrodes: Electrodes used to measure ECG, EEG, and
EMG potentials from the measure ECG, EEG, and EMG potentials
from the surface of the skin.
3. Needle electrodes: Electrodes used to penetrate the skin to record
EEG potentials from a local region of the brain or EMG potentials
from a specific group of muscles.

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Microelectrodes

• To study the electrical activity of individual cells

• Electrode is small enough with respect to the size of the cell in which
it is inserted so that penetration by the electrode does not damage
the cell.
• The tip sizes of microelectrodes range from 0.5 to 5 microns.
• Mainly two types
• Metal Microelectrodes
• Micropipette or Micro capillaries electrodes

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Microelectrodes

• Microelectrodes must be small with respect to the cell dimensions to

avoid causing serious cellular injury and thereby changing the cell's
behavior
• The electrode used for measuring intracellular potential must also be
strong so that it can penetrate the cell membrane and remain
mechanically stable.
• They have tip diameter ranging from approximately 0.05 to 10 μm.
• Microelectrodes can be formed from solid-metal needles, from metal
contained within or on the surface of a glass needle, or from a glass
micropipette having a lumen filled with an electrolyte solution.

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Metal Microelectrodes

• Metal microelectrodes are formed by electrolytically etching the tip

of a fine tungsten or stainless-steel wire to the desired size.
• Then the wire is coated almost to the tip with an insulating material.
• Some electrolytic processing can also be performed on the tip to
lower the impedance.
• The metal-ion interface takes place where the metal tip contacts the
electrolytes either inside or outside the cell.

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Micropipet Electrodes

• The micropipet type of microelectrode is a glass micropipet with the

tip drawn out to the desired size (about 1 micron in diameter).
• The micropipet is filled with an electrolyte compatible with the
cellular fluids.
• This type of microelectrode has a dual interface.
• One interface consists of a metal wire in contact with the electrolyte
solution inside the micropipet, while the other is the interface
between the electrolyte inside the pipet and the fluids inside or
immediately outside the cell.

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Micropipet Electrodes

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Micropipet Electrodes

• Micropipette structure filled with

metal.
• The glass provides mechanical
support. It also serves as an
insulation.
• The metallic area exposed is the
active tip.

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 Supported Glass Micropipette

• A commercial type of microelectrode is

shown in Figure. In this electrode a thin
film of precious metal is bonded to the
outside of a drawn glass microelectrode.
• The manufacturer claims such advantages
as lower impedance than the micropipet
electrode, infinite shelf life, repeatable
and reproducible performance, and easy
cleaning and maintenance.
• The metal electrolyte interface is
between the metal film and the
electrolyte of the cell.
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 Skin surface Electrodes

• Electrodes used to measure ECG, EEG, and EMG potentials from the
surface of the skin.
• Many different types of electrode for recoding various potentials on
the body surface have been developed over many years
• There are 3 main types of the skin surface electrodes
1. Metal-plate electrodes
2. Suction electrodes
3. Floating electrodes

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 Limb Electrodes/ Metal Plate Electrodes

• Most frequently used form of biopotential sensing electrode is the

metal - plate electrode
• It consist of metallic conductor in contact with skin
• An electrolyte soaked pad or gel is used to establish and maintain
good contact
• Three different types of metal plate electrodes.
1. Metal Plate Electrode Used For Application of Limbs
2. Metal Disk Electrode used Applied with Surgical Tape
3. Disposable Foam - Pad Electrodes

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 Metal Plate Electrode Used For
Application of Limbs
• It consist of a flat metal plate that has been bent into a cylinder
segment
• A terminal is placed on its outside surface near one end; this terminal
is used to attach the lead wire to the electrocardiograph
• A post placed on the same side near the center is used to connect a
rubber trap to the electrode and hold it in place on arm or leg
• The electrode is traditionally made of Germen silver (A nickel silver
alloy)
• Before it is attached to the body its
concave surface is covered with
electrolyte gel

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 Metal Disk Electrode used with
Surgical Tape
• It has lead wire soldered or welded to the back surface
• It can be made of several different materials
• The connection between lead wire and electrode is protected by a
layer insulating material such as epoxy or polyvinylchloride

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 Metal Disk Electrode used with
Surgical Tape
• It consist of a relatively large disk of plastic foam material with silver
plated disk. A lead wire is connected to electrode
• Silver plated disk serves as electrode and may coated with AgCl layer
• The electrode side of foam is covered with an adhesive material that
is compatible with the skin
• A protective cover or strip of paper or cotton or cloth placed over the
electrode side

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 Suction-cup Electrode

• A modification of metal plate electrode that requires no straps or

adhesives for holding it in place is the suction electrode.
• Used to record the precordial (chest) leads of ECG.
• Consists of a hollow, metallic, cylindrical electrode that contacts with
the skin at its base and a rubber suction bulb which fits over its top.
• When the bulb is released, the suction applied against the skin holds
the electrode assembly in place.

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 Floating electrodes

• Another type of skin surface electrode is floating electrode or liquid

junction electrode.
• The principle feature is that the actual metal disk is recessed in a
cavity so that it does not make direct contact with the skin.
• The electrical contact is established through the electrolyte paste
filled in the cavity.
• The electrode element is made of silver and is often coated with silver
chloride (AgCl).

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 Needle Electrodes

• For measuring bio-potentials from within the body, this type of

transcutaneous types of electrodes are used
• In which the electrode or the lead wire penetrates the skin, or they
may be implanted internally and connected to an implanted
electronic circuit
• To evaluate individual motor units within a muscle, a needle electrode
must be placed into the muscle itself

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 Needle Electrodes and Wire
Electrodes
• Needle electrodes uncomfortable for long-term implantations.
• Wire electrodes are used for long term implantation

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 Biochemical transducers

• Electrode potential is either at metal electrolyte interface or across a

semi permeable membrane separating two different concentrations
of ion that can diffuse through the membrane.
• These methods are used in transducers designed to measure the
concentration of ion or certain gas dissolved in blood or some other
electrode
• The usual method of measurement of concentrations of ions or gases
is to use one electrode that is sensitive to substance and to choose
second electrode or reference electrode which insensitive to that
substance

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 Reference Electrodes

• The hydrogen electrode should actually be used as the reference in

biochemical measurements.
• Hydrogen electrodes can be built and are available commercially.
• These electrodes make use of the principle that an inert metal, such
as platinum, readily absorbs hydrogen gas.
• If a properly treated piece of platinum is partially immersed in the
solution containing hydrogen ions and is also exposed to hydrogen
gas, which is passed through the electrode, an electrode potential is
formed.

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 Reference Electrodes

• The electrode lead is attached to the

platinum.
• Unfortunately, the hydrogen electrode is not
sufficiently stable to serve as a good
reference electrode.
• Furthermore, the problem of maintaining the
supply of hydrogen to pass through the
electrode during a measurement limits its
usefulness to a few special applications.

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 Reference Electrodes

• However, since measurement of electrochemical concentrations simply

requires a change of potential proportional to a change in
concentration, the electrode potential of the reference electrode can be
any amount, as long as it is stable and does not respond to any possible
changes in the composition of the solution being measured.
• Thus, the search for a good reference electrode is essentially a search
for the most stable electrode available.
• Two types of electrodes have interfaces sufficiently stable to serve as
reference electrodes—the silver-silver chloride (Ag-AgCl) electrode and
the calomel electrode.

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 Ag-AgCl electrode

• The Ag-AgCl electrode used as a reference in electrochemical

measurements utilizes the same type of interface for bioelectric
potential electrodes.
• In the chemical transducer, the ionic (AgCl) side of the interface is
connected to the solution by an electrolyte bridge, usually a dilute
potassium chloride (KCl) filling solution which forms a liquid junction
with the sample solution.
• The electrode can be successfully employed as a reference electrode if
the KCl solution is also saturated with precipitated AgCl.
• The electrode potential for the Ag-AgCl reference electrode depends on
the concentration of the KCl.

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 Calomel Electrode
• An equally popular reference electrode is the calomel electrode.
• Calomel is another name for mercurous chloride, a chemical
combination of mercury and chloride ions.
• The interface between mercury and mercurous chloride generates the
electrode potential.
• By placing the calomel side of the interface in a potassium chloride (KCl)
filling solution, an electrolytic bridge is formed to the sample solution
from which the measurement is to be made.
• Like the Ag-AgCl electrode, the calomel electrode is very stable over
long periods of time and serves well as a reference electrode in many
electrochemical measurements.
• Also, like the Ag-AgCl electrode, the electrode potential of the calomel
electrode depends on the concentration of KCl.
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 pH Electrode
• The most important indicator of chemical balance in the body is the pH
of the blood and other body fluids.
• The pH is directly related to the hydrogen ion concentration in a fluid.
• Specifically, it is the logarithm of the reciprocal of the H+ ion
concentration.
• In equation form,

• The pH is a measure of the acid-base balance of a fluid.

• A neutral solution (neither acid nor base) has a pH of 7.
• Lower pH numbers indicate acidity, whereas higher pH values define a
basic solution.

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 pH Electrode
• Most human body fluids are slightly basic.
• The pH of normal arterial blood ranges between 7.38 and 7.42
• The pH of venous blood is 7.35, because of the extra CO2
• Because a thin glass membrane allows passage of only hydrogen ions in
the form of H3O+, a glass electrode provides a * 'membrane" interface
for hydrogen.
• The principle is illustrated in Figure 4.15. Inside the glass bulb is a highly
acidic buffer solution.
• Measurement of the potential across the glass interface is achieved by
placing a silver-silver chloride electrode in the solution inside the glass
bulb and a calomel or Ag-AgCl reference electrode in the solution in
which the pH is being measured.

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 pH Electrode
• In the measurement of pH and, in fact, any electrochemical
measurement, each of the two electrodes required to obtain the
measurement is called a half-cell.
• The electrode potential for a half-cell is sometimes called the half-cell
potential.
• For pH measurement, the glass electrode with the silver-silver chloride
electrode inside the bulb is considered one half-cell, while the calomel
reference electrode constitutes the other half-cell.
• To facilitate the measurement of the pH of a solution, combination
electrodes of the type shown in Figure 4.16 are available, with both the
pH glass electrode and combination electrodes of the type shown in
Figure 4.16 are available, with both the pH glass electrode and reference
electrode in the same enclosure.
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 pH Electrode
• The glass electrode is quite adequate for pH measurements in the
physiological range (around pH 7), but may produce considerable error
at the extremes of the range (near pH of zero or 13 to 14).
• Special types of pH electrodes are available for the extreme ranges.
• Glass electrodes are also subject to some deterioration after prolonged
use but can be restored repeatedly by etching the glass in a 20 percent
ammonium bifluoride solution.
• The type of glass used for the membrane has much to do with the pH
response of the electrode.
• Special hydroscopic glass that readily absorbs water provides the best
pH response.
• Special hydroscopic glass that readily absorbs water provides the best
pH response.
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 pH Electrode
• Modern pH electrodes have
impedances ranging from 50 to
500 megohms .
• Thus, the input of the meter
that measures the potential
difference between the glass
electrode and the reference
electrode must have an
extremely high input
impedance.
• Most pH meters employ
electrometer inputs.

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 Blood Gas Electrodes
• Among the more important physiological chemical measurements are
the partial pressures of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the blood.
• The partial pressure of a gas is proportional to the quantity of that gas in
the blood.
• The effectiveness of both the respiratory and cardiovascular systems is
reflected in these important parameters.
• The partial pressure of oxygen, PO2, often called oxygen tension, can be
measured both in vitro and in vivo

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Blood Gas Electrodes

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 Blood Gas Electrodes
• A fine piece of platinum or some other noble metal wire, embedded in
glass for insulation purposes, with only the tip exposed, is placed in an
electrolyte into which oxygen is allowed to diffuse.
• If a voltage of about 0.7 V is applied between the platinum wire and a
reference electrode (also placed into the electrolyte), with the platinum
wire negative, reduction of the oxygen takes place at the platinum
cathode.
• As a result, an oxidation-reduction current proportional to the partial
pressure of the diffused oxygen can be measured.
• The electrolyte is generally sealed into the chamber that holds the
platinum wire and the reference electrode by means of a membrane
across which the dissolved oxygen can diffuse from the blood

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 Blood Gas Electrodes
• The platinum cathode and the reference electrode can be integrated
into a single unit (the Clark electrode).
• This electrode can be placed in a cuvette of blood for in vitro
measurements, or a micro version can be placed at the tip of a catheter
for insertion into various parts of the heart or vascular system for direct
in vivo measurements.
• One of the problems inherent in this method of measuring P02 is the
fact that the reduction process actually removes a finite amount of the
oxygen from the immediate vicinity of the cathode.
• By careful design and use of proper procedures, modern PO2 electrodes
have been able to reduce this potential source of error to a minimum.

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 Blood Gas Electrodes
• Another apparent error in PO2 measurement is a gradual reduction of
current with time, almost like the polarization effect described for skin
surface electrodes in Section 4.2.2.
• This effect, generally called aging, has also been minimized in modern
PO2 electrodes.
• The measurement of the partial pressure of carbon dioxide, PCO2makes
use of the fact that there is a linear relationship between the logarithm
of the PCO2 and the pH of a solution
• Since other factors also influence the pH, measurement of PCO2 is
essentially accomplished by surrounding a pH electrode with a
membrane selectively permeable to CO2.

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 Blood Gas Electrodes
• A modern, improved type of PCO2 electrode is called the Severinghaus
electrode.
• In this type of electrode, the membrane permeable to the CO2 is made
of Teflon, which is not permeable to other ions that might affect the pH.
• The space between the Teflon and the glass contains a matrix consisting
of thin cellophane, glass wool, or sheer nylon.
• This matrix serves as the support for an aqueous bicarbonate layer into
which the CO2 gas molecules can diffuse.
• One of the difficulties with older types of CO2 electrodes is the length of
time required for the CO2 molecules to diffuse and thus obtain a
reading.

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 Blood Gas Electrodes
• The principal advantage of the
Severing haus-type electrode is the
more rapid reading that can be
obtained because of the improved
membrane and bicarbonate layer.
• In some applications, measurements
of P02 and PC02 are combined into a
single electrode that also includes a
common reference half-cell.
• Such a combination electrode is
shown in diagram form in Figure
4.18.

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 Specific Ion Electrodes
• Just as the glass electrode provides a semi permeable membrane for the
hydrogen ion in the pH electrode, other materials can be used to form
membranes that are semi permeable to other specific ions.
• In each case, measurement of the ion concentration is accomplished by
measurement of potentials across a membrane that has the correct
degree of permeability to the specific ion to be measured. to the specific
ion to be measured.
• The permeability should be sufficient to permit rapid establishment of
the electrode potential.
• Both liquid and solid membranes are used for specific ions.
• As in the case of the pH electrode, a Ag-AgCl interface is usually
provided on the electrode side of the membrane, and a standard
reference electrode serves as the other half-cell in the solution.
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 Specific Ion Electrodes
• Figure 4.19 shows a solid-state electrode of the type used for
measurement of fluoride ions.
• Figure 4.20 shows three specific ion electrodes along with a pH glass
electrode. The sodium electrode in Figure 4.20(a) is commonly used to
determine sodium ion activity in blood and other physiological solutions.
• The cationic electrode (b) is used when studying alkaline metal ions or
enzymes.
• The ammonia electrode (d) is designed for determinations of ammonia
dissolved in aqueous solutions.
• Its most popular application is in determining nitrogen as free ammonia
or total Kjeldahl nitrogen

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Specific Ion Electrodes

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 Specific Ion Electrodes
• Figure 4.21 is a diagram showing the construction of a flow-through type
of electrode.
• This is a liquid-membrane, specific-ion electrode. One of the difficulties
encountered in the measurement of specific ions is the effect of other
ions in the solution.
• In cases where more than one type of membrane could be selected for
measurement of a certain ion, the choice of membrane actually used
might well depend on other ions that may be expected.
• In fact, some specific-ion electrodes can be used in measurement of a
given ion only in the absence of certain other ions.

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 Specific Ion Electrodes
• For measurement of divalent ions, a liquid membrane is often used for
ion exchange.
• In this case, the exchanger is usually a salt of an organophosphoric acid,
which shows a high degree of specificity to the ion being measured.
• A calcium chloride solution bridges the membrane to the silver-silver
chloride electrode. the silver-silver chloride electrode.
• Electrodes with membranes of solid materials are also used for
measurement of divalent ions.

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Specific Ion Electrodes

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 Transducers for biomedical
applications
• Several basic physical variables and the transducers (active or passive)
used to measure them are listed in Table.
• It should be noted that many variables of great interest in biomedical
applications, such as pressure and fluid or gas flow, are not included.
• These and many other variables of interest can be measured, however,
by first converting each of them into one of the variables for which basic
transducers are available.
• Some very ingenious methods have been developed to convert some of
the more elusive quantities for measurement by one of the transducers
described.

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Transducers for biomedical
applications
Physical Variable Type Of Transducer
Piezoelectric
Force (Or Pressure)
Unbonded Strain Gage
Variable Capacitance
Variable Inductance
Displacement
Linear Variable Differential Transducer
Mercury Strain Gage
Surface Strain Strain Gage
Velocity Magnetic Induction
Thermocouple
Temperature
Thermistor
Photovoltaic
Light
Photo Resistive
Magnetic Field Hall Effect

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 Force Transducers
• A design element frequently used for the conversion of physical
variables is the force-summing member.
• One possible configuration of this device is shown in Figure 2.12(a). In
this case, the force-summing member is a leaf spring.
• When the spring is bent downward, it exerts an upward-directed force
that is proportional to the displacement of the end of the spring.
• If a force is applied to the end of the spring in a downward direction, the
spring bends until its upward-directed force equals the downward-
directed applied force, or, expressed differently, until the vector sum of
both forces equals zero.

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 Force Transducers
• From this it derives its name ** force-summing member.*' In the
configuration shown, the force-summing member can be used to
convert a force into a variable for which transducers are more readily
available.
• The bending of the spring, for example, results in a surface strain that
can be measured by means of bonded strain gauges as shown in Figure
2.12(b).
• The transducers shown in Figure 2.13 utilize this principle.
• The photographs illustrate that force and displacement transducers are
closely related.

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 Force Transducers
• Sometimes, the terms isotonic and isometric are used to describe the
characteristics of these transducers.
• Ideally a force transducer would be isometric; that is, it would not yield
(change its dimensions) when a force is applied.
• On the other hand, a displacement transducer would be isotonic and
offer zero or a constant resistance to an applied displacement.
• In reality, almost all transducers combine the characteristics of both
ideal transducer types.

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 Force Transducers
• Figure 2.13, for example, shows the same basic transducer type
equipped with two different springs.
• With the long, soft spring shown in the upper photograph, the
transducer assumes the characteristics of an isotonic displacement
transducer.
• With the short, stiff spring shown in the lower photograph, it becomes
an isometric force transducer.

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 Force Transducers
• Figure 2.12(c) shows measurement of displacement using a differential
transformer transducer.
• A less frequently used type of displacement transducer is shown in
Figure 2.12(d).
• Here the displacement of a spring is used to modulate the intensity of a
light beam via a mechanical shutter.
• The resulting light intensity is measured by a photo resistive cell.
• In this example, a multiple conversion of variables takes place: force to
displacement, displacement to light intensity, and light intensity to
resistance.
• This principle is actually employed in the commercial transducer shown
in Figure 2.14.

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Force Transducers

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Force Transducers

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Force Transducers

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Transducers for Displacement,
Velocity and
Acceleration

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 Transducers for Displacement,
Velocity and
• Acceleration
If any one of the three variables can be measured, it is possible-at least
in principle - to obtain the other two variables by integration or
differentiation.
• Both operations can readily be performed by electronic methods
operating on either analog or digital signals.
• Expressed in the frequency domain, the integration of a signal
corresponds to a low pass filter with a slope of 6 dB/octave, whereas
differentiation corresponds to a high pass filter with the same slope.
• Because the performance of analog circuits is limited by bandwidth and
noise considerations, integration and differentiation of analog signals is
possible only within a limited frequency range.

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 Transducers for Displacement,
Velocity and
• Acceleration
Usually, integration poses fewer problems than differentiation.
• It should also be noted that discontinuities in the transducer
characteristic (e.g., the finite resolution of a potentiometric transducer
in which the resistive element is of the wire-wound type) are
• greatly enhanced by the differentiation process.
• Table 2.2 shows that transducers for displacement and velocity are
readily available.

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 Transducers for Displacement,
Velocity and
• Acceleration
However, the principles listed for these measurements require that part
of the transducer be attached to the body structure whose
displacement, velocity, or acceleration is to be measured, and that a
reference point be available.
• Since these two conditions cannot always be met in biomedical
applications, indirect methods sometimes have to be used.
• Contactless methods for measuring displacement and velocity, based on
optical or magnetic principles, are occasionally used.
• Magnetic methods usually require that a small magnet or piece of
metal be attached to the body structure.
• Ultrasonic methods are used more frequently.

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 Pressure Transducers

• Pressure transducers are closely related to force transducers.

• Some of the force-summing members used in pressure transducers are
shown in Figure 2.15.
• Pressure transducers utilizing flat diaphragms normally have bonded or
semiconductor strain gauges attached directly to the diaphragms.
• Even smaller dimensions are possible if the diaphragm is made directly
from a thin silicon wafer with the strain gages diffused into its surface.

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 Pressure Transducers

• The corrugated diaphragm lends itself to the design of pressure

transducers using unbonded strain gages or a differential transformer as
the transducer element.
• The LVDT blood pressure transducer uses these principles.
• Flat or corrugated diaphragms have also occasionally been used in
transducers which employ the variable reluctance or variable
capacitance principles.
• Although diaphragm-type pressure transducers can be designed for a
wide range of operating pressures, depending on the diameter and
stiffness of the diaphragm, Bourdon tube transducers are usually used
for high pressure ranges.

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 Pressure Transducers

• It should be noted that the amount of deformation of the force-

summing member in a pressure transducer actually depends on the
difference in the pressure between the two sides of the diaphragm.
• If absolute pressure is to be measured, there must be a vacuum on one
side of the diaphragm.
• It is much more common to measure the pressure relative to
atmospheric pressure by exposing one side of the diaphragm to the
atmosphere.
• In differential pressure transducers the two pressures are applied to
opposite sides of the diaphragm.

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Pressure Transducers

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 Flow Transducers

• The flow rate of fluids or gases is a very elusive variable and many
different methods have been developed to measure it.

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 Transducers with Digital Output

• Increasingly, biomedical instrumentation systems are utilizing digital

methods for the processing of data, which require that any data entered
into the system be in digital rather than in analog form.
• Analog-to-digital converters can be used to convert an analog
transducer output into digital form.
• It is often desirable to have a transducer whose output signal originates
in digital form.

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 Transducers with Digital Output

• Although such transducers are very limited in their application, they are
available for measurement of linear or rotary displacement.
• These transducers contain encoding disks or rulers with digital patterns
(see Figure 2.16) photographically etched on glass plates.
• A light source and an array of photo detectors, usually made up of
photos diodes or photo transistors, are used to obtain a digital signal in
parallel format that indicates the position of the encoding plate, and
thereby represents the displacement being measured.

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Transducers with Digital Output

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