Energy and Chemical

Reactions

L. Scheffler
2011

1
 Heat and Temperature
Heat is energy that is transferred from one
object to another due to a difference in
temperature
Temperature is a measure of the average
kinetic energy of a body
Heat is always transferred from objects at a
higher temperature to those at a lower
temperature

2
 Factors Affecting Heat
Quantities
The amount of heat contained by an object
depends primarily on three factors:
– The mass of material
– The temperature
– The kind of material and its ability to
absorb or retain heat.

3
 Heat Quantities
The heat required to raise the temperature of 1.00 g
of water by 1 oC is known as a calorie
The SI unit for heat is the joule. It is based on the
mechanical energy requirements.
1.00 calorie = 4.184 Joules
The energy required to raise 1 pound of water of 1 oF
is called a British Thermal Unit or BTU
The BTU is widely used in the USA to compute
energy capacities of heating and air conditioning
equipment

4
 Calorimetry
Calorimetry involves the measurement of
heat changes that occur in chemical
processes or reactions.
The heat change that occurs when a
substance absorbs or releases energy is
really a function of three quantities:
– The mass
– The temperature change
– The heat capacity of the material

5
 Heat Capacity and Specific
Heat
The ability of a substance to absorb or retain heat
varies widely.
The heat capacity depends on the nature of the
material.
The specific heat of a material is the amount of heat
required to raise the temperature of 1 gram of a
substance by 1 oC (or Kelvin)

6
 Specific Heat values for
Some Common
Substances
Substance C (J g-1
K-1) C (J mol K-1 )
-1

Water (liquid) 4.184 75.327

Water (steam) 2.080 37.47

Water (ice) 2.110 38.09

Copper 0.385 24.47
Aluminum 0.897 24.2
Ethanol 2.44 112
Lead 0.129 26.4
7
 Heat Exchange
When two systems
are put in contact
with each other,
there will be a net
exchange of energy
between them
unless they are at
thermal equilibrium,
i.e. at the same
temperature.

Heat will flow from the substance at the higher temperature

to that at a lower temperature
8
 Heat Changes
The heat equation may be stated as
Q = m C T
where:
Q = Change in heat
m = mass in grams
C = specific heat in J g-1 oC-1
T = Temperature change

9
 Temperature Changes
Measuring the temperature
change in a calorimetry
experiment can be difficult
since the system is losing
heat to the surroundings
even as it is generating
heat.
By plotting a graph of time
vs. temperature it is
possible to extrapolate
back to what the maximum
temperature would have
been had the system not
been losing heat to the
surroundings.
A time vs. temperature graph
10
 Heat Transfer Problem 1
Calculate the heat that would be required to raise the
temperature of an aluminum cooking pan whose mass is
400 grams, from 20oC to 200oC. The specific heat of
aluminum is 0.902 J g-1 oC-1.
Solution
Q = mCT
= (400 g) (0.902 J g-1 oC-1)(200oC – 20oC)
= 64,944 J

11
 Heat Transfer Problem 2
What is the final temperature when 50 grams of water at
20oC is added to 80 grams of water at 60oC? Assume
that the loss of heat to the surroundings is negligible.
The specific heat of water is 4.184 J g-1 oC-1

Solution: Q (Cold) = Q (hot) mCT= mCT

Let T = final temperature
(50 g) (4.184 J g-1 oC-1)(T- 20oC)
= (80 g) (4.184 J g-1 oC-1)(60oC- T)
(50 g)(T- 20oC) = (80 g)(60oC- T)
50T -1000 = 4800 – 80T
130T =5800
T = 44.6 oC
12
 Phase Changes & Heat
Energy is required to change the phase of a
substance
The amount of heat necessary to melt a
substance is called the Heat of fusion
(Hfus).The heat of fusion is expressed in
terms of 1 mole or 1 gram
It takes 6.00 kJ of energy to melt 1 mole
(18 grams) of ice into liquid water. This
is equivalent to about 335 J per gram
The amount of heat necessary to boil a substance is
called the Heat of vaporization (Hvap)
It may be expressed in terms of 1 mole or 1 gram
It takes 40.6 kJ of energy to boil away 1 mole (18
grams) of water. This is equivalent to about 2240
J per gram. 13
 Molar Heat Data for
Some Common
Substances
Substance Qfus Qvap
Mercury, Hg 2.29kJ/mol 59.1kJ/mol

Ethanol, C2H5OH 5.02kJ/mol 38.6kJ/mol

Water, H2O 6.00kJ/mol 40.6kJ/mol

Ammonia, NH3 5.65kJ/mol 23.4kJ/mol
Helium, He 0.02kJ/mol 0.08kJ/mol
Acetone 5.72kJ/mol 29.1kJ/mol
Methanol, CH3OH 3.16kJ/mol 35.3kJ/mol
14
 Heat Transfer Problem 3
How much energy must be lost for 50.0 g of liquid wax at
85.0˚C to cool to room temperature at 25.0˚C?
(Csolid wax= 2.18 J/g˚C, m.p. of wax = 62.0 ˚C, Cliquid wax=2.31
J/g˚C; MM = 352.7 g/mol, Hfusion=70,500 J/mol)
Q =
Qtota=
(50g)(2.31J g-1˚C-1)(62˚C-85˚C) mCliquid waxT
+ (50g/352.7gmol-1)(-70,500J mol-1) + n(Qfusion)
+ (50g)(2.18J g-1˚C-1)(25˚C-62˚C) + mCsolid waxT

Qtotal= (-2656.5 J) + (-9994.3 J)+ (-4033 J)

Qtotal= -16,683.8 J

Qtotal = Qliquid wax + Qsolidification + Qsolid wax

Qtotal= = mCliquid waxT +n(Qfusion) +
15
 Heat Transfer Problem 4
Steam at 175°C that occupies a volume of 32.75 dm3
and a pressure of 2.60 atm. How much energy would
it need to lose to end as liquid water at 20 oC?

Solution:
n = PV/RT = (2.60 atm)(32.75 dm3)
(0.0821 dm3 atm mol-1 K-1)(448 K-1)
= 2.315 mol
Q = (2.315 mol) (37.47 J mol-1K-1)(175oC-100oC)
+(2.315 mol)(40600 J mol-1)
+(2.315 mol)(75.327 J mol-1K-1)(100oC-20oC)

Q = 6505.7J + 93989 J + 13950.6 J = 114445.3 J

= 114.445 kJ
 Chemical Reactions
In a chemical reaction
Chemical bonds are broken
Atoms are rearranged
New chemical bonds are formed
These processes always involve
energy changes

17
 Energy Changes
Breaking chemical bonds requires
energy.
Forming new chemical bonds releases
energy.

18
Exothermic and Endothermic
Processes

Exothermic processes release energy

C3H8 (g) + 5 O2 (g)  3 CO2 (g) + 4H2O (g)
+ 2043
kJ
Endothermic processes absorb energy
C(s) + H2O (g) +113 kJ  CO(g) + H2 (g)

19
 Energy Changes in
endothermic and
exothermic processes
In an endothermic
reaction there is
more energy
required to break
bonds than is
released when
bonds are formed.

The opposite is
true in an
exothermic
reaction.

20
Enthalpy Calculations

21
 Enthalpy
Enthalpy is the heat absorbed or released
during a chemical reaction where the only
work done is the expansion of a gas at
constant pressure.

22
 Enthalpy
Not all energy changes that occur as a result
of chemical reactions are expressed as heat
Energy = Heat + Work
Work is a force applied over a distance.
Most energy changes resulting from
chemical reactions are expressed in a
special term known as enthalpy

23
 *Enthalpy
It is nearly impossible to set up a
chemical reaction where there is no
work performed.
The conditions for a chemical reaction
are often set up so that work is
minimized.
Enthalpy and heat are nearly equal
under these conditions.

24
 Enthalpy Changes
The change in enthalpy is designated by the
symbol H.
– If H < 0 the process is exothermic.
– If H > 0 the process is endothermic.

– Sometimes the symbol for enthalpy (H) is used

for heat (Q)
– In many cases where work is minimal heat is a
close approximation for enthalpy.
– One must always remember that while they are
closely related, heat and enthalpy are NOT
identical

25
 *Energy and Enthalpy
Changes
It is impractical to measure absolute
amounts of energy or enthalpy.
Hence we measure changes in enthalpy
rather than total enthalpy
Enthalpy is always measured relative to
previous conditions.
Enthalpy is measured relative to the system.

26
 Measuring Enthalpy
The amount of heat absorbed or released
during a chemical reaction depends on the
conditions under which the reaction is
carried out including:
– the temperature
– the pressure
– the physical state of the reactants and
products

27
 Standard Conditions
For most thermodynamic measurements
standard conditions are established as
– 25 oC or 298 K
– 1.0 atmosphere of pressure

– Note this is a change from the gas laws

where the standard temperature was 0oC

28
 *Standard State
The pure form of a substance at
standard conditions (25oC and 1
atmosphere) is said to be in the
standard state.
The most stable form of an element at
standard conditions represents the
standard state for that element.

29
Bond Enthalpies

30
 Bond Enthalpies
The energy required to break a covalent bond
in the gaseous phase is called a bond
enthalpy.
One way to determine an enthalpy change for
a chemical reaction is to calculate the
difference in bond enthalpies between
reactants and products.
The bond enthalpy table gives the average
energy required to break a chemical bond.
(There are slight variations from these values
depending on the environment in which the chemical
bond is located.)

31
 Bond Enthalpy Table
The average bond enthalpies for several types of
chemical bonds are shown in the table below:

32
 Bond Enthalpies
Bond enthalpies can be used to calculate the
enthalpy change for a chemical reaction.
Energy is required to break chemical bonds.
Therefore when a chemical bond is broken
its enthalpy change carries a positive sign.
Energy is released when chemical bonds
form. When a chemical bond is formed its
enthalpy change is expressed as a negative
value

33
 Bond Enthalpies
By combining the
enthalpy required
and the enthalpy
released for the
breaking and
forming chemical
bonds, one can
calculate the
enthalpy change
for a chemical
reaction

34
 Bond Enthalpy
Calculations
Example 1: Calculate the enthalpy change for the
reaction N2 + 3 H2  2 NH3
Bonds broken
1 N=N: = 945
3 H-H: 3(435) = 1305
Total = 2250 kJ
Bonds formed
2x3 = 6 N-H: 6 (390) = - 2340 kJ

Net enthalpy change

= + 2250 - 2340 = - 90 kJ
35
Hess Law and Enthalpy
Calculations

36
 Standard Enthalpy
Changes
The enthalpy change that occurs when the
reactants are converted to products, both
being in their standard states is known as the
standard enthalpy change.
It is designated as Ho.
Ho reaction =  Ho products -  Ho reactants

37
 Calculating Enthalpy from
tables
The enthalpy of formation for compound is
equal to the enthalpy change that occurs when a
compound is formed from its elements
The symbol for the enthalpy of formation is Hf
Enthalpies of formation have been measured
and tabulated for a large number of compounds.
(Textbook table is pp 984-985 in Chemistry the Central
Science 7th edition. It is a few pages later in the 8th
edition)

38
 Enthalpies of Formation
Some enthalpies of formation for common compounds

BaCO3 -1219 H2O (g) -242 HCl (g) - 93

Ba(OH)2 - 998 H2O (l) -286 HCl (aq) -167
BaO - 554 H2O2 -188 NH3 (g) - 46
CaCO3 -1207 C3H8 -104 NO + 90
CaO - 636 C4H10 -126 NO2 +33.8
Ca(OH)2 - 987 CO -110 SO2 - 297
CaCl2 - 796 CO2 -394 Al2O3(s) -1670

See your text: Brown, LeMay and Bursten, Chemistry the Central Science,
7th edition pages 984-987 for addition values
39
 Calculating Enthalpy from
tables
Enthalpies of formation represent the
enthalpy changes when compound
forms from its elements
The enthalpy of formation for a
chemical reaction can be expressed as
the difference between the enthalpy
state of the products and that of the
reactants
Hreaction =  Hoproducts –Horeactants

40
 Sample Problem 1
Calcium carbonate reacts with hydrochloric acid
according to the following equation:
CaCO3 (s) + 2HCl (aq)  CaCl2 (aq) + H2O (l) + CO2 (g)
Calculate the enthalpy change for this reaction
Horeaction =  Hoproducts –Horeactants
Solution
H CaCO3
o
-1207 Hoproducts =(-796)+(-286)+(-394)
Ho HCl (aq) -167 = -1476 kJ
HoCaCl2 -796
Ho H2O (l) Horeactants =(-1207)+(2)(-167)
-286
Ho CO2 (g)
= -1541 kJ
-394
Horeaction = -1476-(-1541) = +65 kJ

41
 Sample Problem 2
Calculate the enthalpy change for the burning
of 11 grams of propane
C3H8 (g) + 5 O2 (g)  3 CO2 (g) + 4 H2O (g)
Horeaction =  Hoproducts –Horeactants
Solution
H C 3 H 8
o
-104 Hoproducts =(3)(-394)+(4)(-242)
Ho O2 (g) 0 = -2150 kJ
Ho H2O (g) -242 Horeactants =(-104)+(5)(0)
= -104 kJ
Ho CO2 (g) -394 Horeaction = -2150-(-104) = -2046 kJmol-1

Now 11 grams = 0.25 mole of propane (11 g/44 g mol-1)

(0.25 mol )(-2046 kJ mol-1) = - 511.5 kJ
42
Some things to Remember
The enthalpy of formation table is stated in kJ
mol-1.
To find the sum of enthalpies of formation for
reactants or products, multiply the number of
moles of each substance by the enthalpy of
formation for that substance.
Then find the difference: Products-Reactants

43
 Hess’ Law – Indirect
Enthalpy Calculations by
Rearranging Reactions
Hess’ Law provides a way to calculate
enthalpy changes even when the
reaction cannot be performed directly.
If a series of reactions are added
together, the enthalpy change for the
net reaction will be the sum of the
enthalpy change for the individual
steps
44
 Techniques
Equations may be multiplied, divided, or
reversed and then added together to form a
new equation.
If an equation is multiplied or divided the
enthalpy of the reaction is multiplied or
divided by the same factor.
If the direction an equation is reversed the
sign of the enthalpy is the opposite as well.
When adding equations together the
enthalpies are added together as well
45
Hess’ Law: Example 1
N2 (g) + O2 (g)  2 NO (g) H1 = +181 kJ
2 NO (g) + O2 (g)  2 NO2 (g) H2 = -113 kJ

Find the enthalpy change for

N2 (g) + 2 O2 (g)  2 NO2 (g)

46
 Hess’ Law: Example 1
The required equation is really the sum of the two
given equations
Solution:
N2 (g) + O2 (g)  2 NO (g) H1 = +181 kJ
2 NO (g) + O2 (g)  2 NO2 (g) H2 = -113 kJ
-------------------------------------------------------------
N2 (g) +2O2 (g)+ 2 NO (g)  2 NO (g) + 2 NO2 (g)
N2 (g) +2O2 (g)  + 2 NO2 (g)

H = H1 + H2 = +181 kJ +(-113) = + 68 kJ

47
 Hess Law: Example 2
From the following reactions and enthalpy changes:
2 SO2 (g) + O2 (g)  2 SO3 (g) H = -196 kJ
2 S (s) +3 O2 (g)  2 SO3 (g) H = -790 kJ
Find the enthalpy change for the following reaction:
S (s) + O2 (g)  SO2 (g)

Solution:
2 SO3 (g)  2 SO2 (g) + O2 (g) H = +196 kJ
2 S (s) +3 O2 (g)  2 SO3 (g) H = -790 kJ
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Reversing the order of the first equation reverses the sign of

H

48
 Hess Law Example 2
From the following reactions and enthalpy changes:
2 SO2 (g) + O2 (g)  2 SO3 (g) H = -196 kJ
2 S (s) +3 O2 (g)  2 SO3 (g) H = -790 kJ
Find the enthalpy change for the following reaction:
S (s) + O2 (g)  SO2 (g)

2 SO3 (g)  2 SO2 (g) + O2 (g) H = +196 kJ

2 S (s) +3 O2 (g)  2 SO3 (g) H = -790 kJ
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

2 SO3(g) +2 S(s) + 2 3 O2 (g)  2 SO3 (g)+2 SO2 (g) + O2 (g)

H = -594 kJ
2 S(s) + 2 O2 (g)  2 SO2 (g) H = -594 kJ

49
Hess Law: Example 2
From the following reactions and enthalpy changes:
2 SO2 (g) + O2 (g)  2 SO3 (g) H = -196 kJ
2 S (s) +3 O2 (g)  2 SO3 (g) H = -790 kJ
Find the enthalpy change for the following reaction:
S (s) + O2 (g)  SO2 (g)

2 SO3 (g)  2 SO2 (g) + O2 (g) H = +196 kJ

2 S (s) +3 O2 (g)  2 SO3 (g) H = -790 kJ
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

2 SO3(g) +2 S(s) + 2 3 O2 (g)  2 SO3 (g)+2 SO2 (g) + O2 (g)

H = -594 kJ
2 S(s) + 2 O2 (g)  2 SO2 (g) H = -594 kJ
S(s) + O2 (g)  SO2 (g) H = -297 kJ
50
Born Haber Cycle

51
 Born-Haber Cycle
Born-Haber Cycles are energy cycles for the
formation of certain ionic compounds
The enthalpy of formation for an uncombined
element is therefore = 0
Application of Hess’ Law
A Born-Haber cycle can be used to calculate
quantities that are difficult to measure
directly such as lattice energies
The formation of an ionic compound as a
sequence of steps whose energies can be
determined.
52
 Some Definitions
The enthalpy of atomization is the enthalpy change that
occurs when one mole of gaseous atoms is formed
from the element in the standard state under standard
conditions
Example: ½ Cl2 (g)  Cl (g) Hoat = 121 kJ mol-1
The electron affinity is the enthalpy change that occurs
when an electron is added to an isolated atom in the
gaseous state:
O (g) + e-  O- (g) Ho = -142 kJ mol-1
O- (g) + e-  O2- (g) Ho = +844 kJ mol-1
The lattice enthalpy is the enthalpy change that occurs
from the conversion of an ionic compound in the
gaseous state into its gaseous ions
LiCl (g)  Li+ (g) + Cl- (g) Ho = +846 kJ mol-1

53
 Born Haber Cycle
Diagram

The stepwise energy changes for the formation of NaCl

54
 Born Haber Cycle for
NaCl
The formation of NaCl can be considered as a five
step process
Na (s) + 1/2 Cl2 (g) NaCl (s)
1. The vaporization of sodium metal to form the gaseous
element.
2. The dissociation of chlorine gas to gaseous chlorine
atoms is equal to one half of the bond energy for a Cl-Cl
covalent bond
3. The ionization of gaseous sodium atoms to Na(g) Na+
4. The ionization of chlorine atoms. (This quantity is the
negative electron affinity for the element chlorine.)
5. The lattice energy on the formation of sodium chloride
from the gaseous ions

55
 Born-Haber Cycle for
NaCl
The stepwise energy changes for the formation of NaCl:
The vaporization of sodium metal to form the gaseous
element.
Na (s)  Na (g) ∆H°sublimation = + 109 kJ mol-1
The dissociation of chlorine gas to gaseous chlorine
atoms is equal to one half of the bond energy for a Cl-Cl
covalent bond
1/2 Cl2 (g)  Cl (g) ∆H°diss = + 122 kJ mol-1
The ionization of gaseous sodium atoms to:
Na (g)  Na+ (g) + e- ∆H°ionization = + 496 kJ mol-1

The ionization of chlorine atoms. (This quantity is the

negative electron affinity for the element chlorine.)
Cl (g) + e-  Cl- (g) ∆H°elect.affinity = - 368 kJ mol-1

The lattice energy on the formation of sodium chloride

from the gaseous ions 56
Entropy
 Entropy
Entropy is defined as
a state of disorder or
randomness.
In general the
universe tends to
move toward release
of energy and greater
entropy.

58
 Entropy
The statistical
interpretation of
thermodynamics was
pioneered by James
Clerk Maxwell (1831–
1879) and brought to
fruition by the Austrian
physicist Ludwig
Boltzmann (1844–1906).

59
 Entropy
Spontaneous chemical
processes often result in a
final state is more Disordered
or Random than the original.
The Spontaneity of a
chemical process is related to
a change in randomness.
Entropy is a thermodynamic Reaction of potassium
property related to the metal with water. The
degree of randomness or products are more
disorder in a system. randomly distributed
than the reactants 60
 Entropy and
Thermodynamics
According to the second law or
thermodynamics the entropy of the
universe is always increasing.
This is true because there are many more
possibilities for disorder than for order.
 Entropy
Royal
Flush

Nothing
hand
 Entropy is Disorder
Disorder in a system can take many forms.
Each of the following represent an increase in
disorder and therefore in entropy:
1. Mixing different types of particles. i.e.
dissolving salt in water.
2. A change is state where the distance between
particles increases. Evaporation of water.
3. Increased movement of particles. Increase in
temperature.
4. Increasing numbers of particles. Ex.
2 KClO3  2 KCl + 3O2

63
 Entropy States
The greatest increase in entropy is usually
found when there is an increase of
particles in the gaseous state.
The symbol for the change in disorder or
entropy is given by the symbol, S.
The more disordered a system becomes
the more positive the value for S will be.
Systems that become more ordered have
negative S values.

64
 Entropy, S

The entropy of a substance depends SSoo(J/K

(J/K-1mol
mol-1))
-1 -1

on its state:
HH2OO (liquid)
(liquid) 69.95
69.95
S (gases) > S (liquids) > S (solids) 2

HH2OO (gas)
(gas) 188.8
188.8
2

65
 Entropy and States of
Matter

S˚(Br2 liquid) < S˚(Br2 gas) S˚(H2O solid) < S˚(H2O liquid)
66
Entropy, Phase &
Temperature

S increases
slightly with T
S increases a
large amount
with phase
changes

67
Entropy and Temperature
The Entropy of a substance increases with
temperature.

Molecular motions Molecular motions of

of heptane, C7H16 heptane at different
temperatures.
68
Entropy - Boltzman
Ludwig Boltzman
S = k Ln W
Entropy is proportional
to the number of degrees
of freedom or possible
configurations in a
system.

69
Standard Entropy Values
The standard entropy, So, of a substance
is the entropy change per mole that occurs
when heating a substance from 0 K to the
standard temperature of 298 K.
Unlike enthalpy, absolute entropy changes
can be measured.
Like enthalpy, entropy is a state function.
The change in entropy is the difference
between the products and the reactants
So =  So (products) -  So (reactants)

70
 Standard Entropy Values
Some standard enthalpy values
The amount of entropy in a
pure substance depends on
the temperature, pressure,
and the number of molecules
in the substance.
Values for the entropy of
many substances at have
been measured and tabulated.
The standard entropy is also
measured at 298 K.

71
 Factors That Determine
Entropy States
The greater the disorder or randomness in a system
the larger the entropy.
Some generalizations
1. The entropy of a substance always increases as it
changes from solid to liquid to gas and vice versa.
2. When a pure solid or liquid dissolves in a solvent,
the entropy of the substance increases.
3. When gas molecules escape from a solvent, the
entropy increases.
4. Entropy generally decreases with increasing
molecular complexity
Gibbs Free Energy

73
 Spontaneity
A chemical reaction is spontaneous if it
results in the system moving form a less
stable to a more stable state.
Decreases in enthalpy and increases in
entropy move a system to greater stability.
The combination of the enthalpy factor and
the entropy factor can be expressed as the
Gibbs Free Energy.

74
 Gibbs Free Energy
The standard free energy change is defined
by this equation
Go = Ho – T So

Where

Ho = the enthalpy change

So = the entropy change
T = Kelvin temperature

A chemical reaction is spontaneous if it

results in a negative free energy change.

75
 Gibbs Free Energy
Possible Combinations for free energy change:
Go = Ho – T So
G H S H-TS
Always < 0 (-) < 0 (-) > 0 (+) Always (-)
Spontaneous
Never > 0 (+) > 0 (+) < 0 (-) Always (+)
Spontaneous
Spontaneous at < 0 (-) > 0 (+) (-) if T large
High Temperature > 0 (+) > 0 (+)
(+) if T small
Spontaneous at > 0 (+) (+) if T large
Low Temperature < 0 (-) < 0 (-) < 0 (-) (-) if T small
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 Free Energy Problem 1
A certain chemical reaction is exothermic with a
standard enthalpy of - 400 kJ mol-1. The entropy
change for this reaction is +44 J mol-1 K-1.
Calculate the free energy change for this reaction
at 25 oC. Is the reaction spontaneous?
Solution
Convert the entropy value to kJ. 44 J mol-1 K-1 = 0.044
kJ mol-1 K-1
G = - 400 kJ mol-1 – (298 K)(0.044 kJ mol-1 K-1) 
G = - 400 kJ mol-1 – 13.1 kJ mol-1
G = - 413.1 kJ mol-1 . Since G is negative the
reaction is spontaneous.
Note. Because H <0 and S >0, this reaction is spontaneous
at all temperatures.
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 Free Energy Problem 2
A certain chemical reaction is endothermic with a
standard enthalpy of +300 kJ mol-1. The entropy
change for this reaction is +25 J mol-1 K-1.
Calculate the free energy change for this reaction
at 25 oC. Is the reaction spontaneous?
Solution
Convert the entropy value to kJ. 25 J mol-1 K-1 = 0.025
kJ mol-1 K-1
G = + 300 kJ mol-1 – (298 K)(0.025 kJ mol-1 K-1) 
G = + 300 kJ mol-1 – 7.45 kJ mol-1
G = + 292.55 kJ mol-1 . Since G is positive the
reaction is non-spontaneous.
Note. Because H >0 and S >0, this reaction is non-
spontaneous at low temperatures. It the temperature were
substantially increased it would become spontaneous.
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