APEX INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE & ENGINEERING

Artificial Intelligence (22CSH-387)

Lecture – 2.3.3&2.3.4
Knowledge using rules DISCOVER . LEARN . EMPOWER
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Artificial Intelligence : Course Objectives
COURSE OBJECTIVES
(AI) is a research field that studies how to realize the intelligent human
behaviors on a computer. The ultimate goal of AI is to make a computer that
can learn, plan, and solve problems autonomously. Although AI has been studied
for more than half a century, we still cannot make a computer that is as
intelligent as a human in all aspects, The main research topics in AI include:
problem solving, reasoning, planning, natural language understanding, computer
vision, automatic programming, machine learning, and so on. Of course, these
topics are closely related with each other. In this course, we will study the
most fundamental knowledge for understanding AI. We will introduce some basic
search algorithms for problem solving; knowledge representation and reasoning;
pattern recognition; fuzzy logic; and neural networks 2
COURSE OUTCOMES

On completion of this course, the students shall be able to:

CO1 Understand the basics of the theory and practice of Artificial Intelligence as a discipline and
about intelligent agents capable of problem formulation
CO2 Evaluation of different uninformed search algorithms on well formulate problems along with
stating valid conclusions that the evaluation supports.
CO3 Design and Analysis of informed search algorithms on well formulated problems.
CO4 Formulate and solve given problem using Propositional and First order logic.
CO5 Understanding and Implementation of Expert Systems and different Gaming playing
approaches for different types of AI applications

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 Unit-2 Syllabus

Ch1. FOPL & First order logic. Inference in first order logic, propositional vs. first
Knowledge order inference, unification & lifts forward chaining, Backward
representation chaining, Resolution,
Ch2. Reasoning under uncertainty, review of probability, Bayes’ Logic
REASONING probabilistic interferences and dempster Shafer theory.
Programming:
Ch 3. Knowledge representation issues, predicate logic- logic
Knowledge programming, semantic nets- frames and inheritance, constraint
representation propagation, representing knowledge using rules, rules-based
deduction systems.

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SUGGESTIVE READINGS
• TEXT BOOKS
T1. Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach by Stuart Russell and Peter Norvig. Prentice-Hall, 2003
(2ndEdition).
T2. Elaine Riche, Kevin Knight and Shivashankar B. Nair, “Artificial Intelligence”, Third Edition, TMH
Educations Pvt. Ltd., 2008

• REFERENCE BOOKS
R1 Nils J. Nilsson, “The Quest for Artificial Intelligence”, Second Edition, Cambridge University Press,
2009

R2 Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems – Dan W. Patterson, Prentice Hall of India

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 Knowledge using rules,

In production rules, agent checks for the condition and if the condition exists then
production rule fires and corresponding action is carried out.
• The condition part of the rule determines which rule may be applied to a problem.
Whereas, the action part carries out the associated problem-solving steps. This complete
process is called a recognize-act cycle.
• The production rules system consists of three main parts:
– The set of production rules
– Working Memory
– The recognize-act-cycle
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 Knowledge using rules,
Advantages:
– The production rules are expressed in natural language.
– The production rules are highly modular and can be easily removed or
modified.

• Disadvantages:
– It does not exhibit any learning capabilities and does not store the result of
the problem for future uses.
– During the execution of the program, many rules may be active. Thus, rule-
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based production systems are inefficient.
 Representation Requirements
A good knowledge representation system must have properties such as:
Representational Accuracy: It should represent all kinds of required knowledge.
Inferential Adequacy: It should be able to manipulate the representational structures to
produce new knowledge corresponding to the existing structure.
Inferential Efficiency: The ability to direct the inferential knowledge mechanism into the
most productive directions by storing appropriate guides.
Acquisitional efficiency: The ability to acquire new knowledge easily using automatic
methods.
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 Approaches to Knowledge Representation in AI
Simple Relational Knowledge – It is the simplest way of storing facts which uses the
relational method. Here, all the facts about a set of the object are set out systematically in
columns. – Also, this approach of knowledge representation is famous in database systems
where the relationship between different entities is represented. – Thus, there is little
opportunity for inference.

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Approaches to Knowledge Representation in AI
Inheritable Knowledge
– In the inheritable knowledge approach, all data must be stored into a hierarchy of
classes and should be arranged in a generalized form or a hierarchal manner.
– Also, this approach contains inheritable
knowledge which shows a relation between instance and class, and it is called instance
relation.
– In this approach, objects and values are represented in Boxed nodes.

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Approaches to Knowledge Representation in AI

Source : https://users.cs.cf.ac.uk/Dave/AI2/inherit.gif

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Approaches to Knowledge Representation in AI
Inferential Knowledge
• The inferential knowledge approach represents knowledge in the form of formal
logic. Thus, it can be
used to derive more facts. Also, it guarantees correctness.
• Example:
Statement 1: John is a cricketer.
Statement 2: All cricketers are athletes.
Then it can be represented as;
– Cricketer(John)
– ∀x = Cricketer (x) ———-> Athelete (x)s

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 Production rules in AI
A production system consists of three components; the data base, the rules and the interpreter

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 Knowledge Database

The data base or the working memory represents all the knowledge of the system at any
given moment. It can be thought of as a simple data base of facts which are true of the
domain at that time. The contents of data base change as facts are added or deleted
according to the application of the rules.

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 Rules or Production Rules for Procedural
Knowledge Representation:

These are operators, as will be seen shortly, which are applied to the knowledge in the
data base and change the state of the production system, in some way, usually by
changing the contents of the data base. The production rules are also some time called
condition-action rules. If the condition of a rule is true according to the data base at
that moment the action associated with the rule is performed

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 Production Rules

Production rules are usually unordered, in the sense that the sequence in which rules will be
applied depends on the current state of the data base. The rule whose condition matches the
state of the data base will be selected. If more than one rule matches the conflict resolution.

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 Production Rules

Rules provide a formal way of representing recommendations, directives, or strategies; they

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The rule’s action part may modify the set of facts in the knowledge base
by adding the then portion of the rule fired in the data base added as
new fact as AI

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The action taken when the rule fires may
directly affect the real world

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This matching of rule IF portions of rule, to the facts In the data base can
produce what are called inference chains. The inference chain formed from
successive execution of rules 1 and 2

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 Discussion
The following structure with three objects illustrates a production rule using object classes

The conventional item business object for items and item families, for products and components.

The bill-of-material position variant or operation variant. This is the conventional object bill-of-material position or
operation, plus a variant number, which also belongs to the bill-of-material position ID or operation ID.

The assembly has, for example, u positions, where u >= 1. For each position x, 1 <= x <= u, there are thus vx
variants, vx >= 1. If there is only one variant, then there is equality; this is the conventional situation with an
unconditional bill of material.

The IF clause. This is a logical expression in parameters such as “type,” “length,” and so forth.

The three objects — product family, position variant, and IF clause — are linked together to form a production rule.
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 References
Text Books:
T1. Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach by Stuart Russell and Peter Norvig. Prentice-Hall, 2003
(2ndEdition).
T2. Elaine Riche, Kevin Knight and Shivashankar B. Nair, “Artificial Intelligence”, Third Edition,
TMH Educations Pvt. Ltd.
Reference Books:
R1 Nils J. Nilsson, “The Quest for Artificial Intelligence”, Second Edition, Cambridge University Press,
2009
R2 Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems – Dan W. Patterson, Prentice Hall of India

Web References
1 https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/what-is-a-production-system-in-ai/
2. https://www.analyticsvidhya.com/blog/2023/09/production-systems-in-ai/
Videos References :
• 1. https://youtu.be/0XR_NjJQs0Q
• 2. https://youtu.be/wGHrfYMJkuI
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 THANK YOU

For queries
Email: [email protected]
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