EEE314 ANALOGUE

ELECTRONICS
Engr. Dr. Abubakar
Saddiq MOHAMMED
 Course Synopsis
O 1. Diode Models and Circuits; Rectifiers, Clippers,
Clampers, Switches, Voltage Multipliers, Regulators.

O 2. BJT Circuits; Circuit Configuration, Biasing Methods,

Single-stage small signal amplifiers (equivalent circuits,
determination of voltage gain, current gain, power gain,
input resistance, output resistance, gain frequency
curve, bandwidth), multi-stage amplifiers (types, effect,
feedback).

O 3. FET Circuits; Configuration, Biasing, Determination of

gain, input & output resistance, comparison with BJT.
 Course Synopsis
O 4. Power Amplifiers (Class A, B, AB, C) operation and
applications.

O 5. Oscillator Circuits: RC, LC, Crystal, Wien-bridge.

O 6. Operational Amplifiers: Features and Characteristics

of Ideal / non-ideal OPAMPS. Operations using circuits
block diagram.

O 7. OPAMPS Circuits (summer, subtractor, integrator,

differentiator, log and antilog-amplifiers, Voltage
follower, oscillators, NIC, etc )
 1.0 Diode Model & Circuits
O 1.1 electrical conduction in a semiconductor
material

O 1.2 i-v characteristics of a semiconductor DIODE

(pn junction)

O 1.3 IDEAL, OFFSET, AND PIECEWISE LINEAR

DIODE MODELS in simple circuits

O 1.4 DIODE RECTIFIER, CLAMPER, CLIPPER,

SWITCHES, VOLTAGE MULTIPLIER and REGULATOR
circuits
 1.1 Conduction in
semiconductor materials
O CHARGE CARRIERS, free electrons and holes
External Electric Field
-
+ +

+ + -
+ -
- +
+
+ -
+

Net Current Flow

O they travel in the opposite direction and enables
current flow in the same direction as the applied field
O PHENOMENON :- mobility,
recombination, intrinsic concentration
= 1.5 x electrons / at room temperature
for . (equivalent number of holes)

O Doping controls the number of charge

carriers and that of impurities to the
crystalline structure of semiconductor.

O DOPANTS group V (As)and acceptors

group III (In)
O Semiconductor doped : - n-type
semiconductors and p-types

O Doping level significantly higher than the

intrinsic concentration of the original
semiconductor

O For n-type n >> p <<

 1.1.2 Semiconductor Diode
O Two electrode device. Two section one junction
O Idealized pn junction and ohmic contacts at its junction

O Its ability to conduct current preferentially in

one direction when the junction is forward biased
p depletion region n
- +
(ionized)
+ - + -
- +
+ -
- +
- + -
+
- +
O The depletion region sees a separation of charges and give
rise to an electric field due to ionization of charges. The
charge separation causes a contact potential to exist at
the junction (offset voltage

O A closed circuit give rise to two currents, reverse saturation

current and diffusion current

O Phenomenon drift (E)and diffusion current in pn junction

when connected in both forward and reverse biased
directions respectively establishing a suitable ohmic
contact

O The effects of the connections with respect to depletion

region and contact potential respectively (majority
carriers)
O= -
1.2.1

O= 1.2.2
k Boltzmann’s constant =1.381 x J/K
q charge of one electron
T temp of the material
kT/q is a constant at room temp 25mV

O Net diode current under forward bias

= - = (- 1) 1.2.3
Diode equation
1.2 Behaviour of a semiconductor diode based
on its i-v characteristics

O Phenomena : reverse conduction (>),

avalanche breakdown, impact ionization ,
reverse bias breakdown, Zenerbreakdown

O The high density of charge carriers provides

the means for a substantial reverse current to
be sustained at a nearly constant reverse bias
the Zenervoltage
 𝑖𝐷
Reverse
Bias
Region
Forward
Reverse bias
Breakdow Region
n
Region
−𝑉 𝑍 0 𝑉γ 𝑉𝐷

i-v characteristics curve of semiconductor

diode
1.3 LINEAR CIRCUIT MODELS FOR
SEMICONDUCTOR DIODES
O Simplifies the analysis of diode circuits.
O Large signal models and small signal
models total behaviour in the presence
of relatively large or small diode
current and voltage

1.3.1 Large-Diode Signal Model

Ideal Diode Model
on-off device i.e. short circuit- open
circuit model
1.3.2 Technique for determining the
conduction state of an Ideal Diode
i. Assume the conduction state (on or off)
ii. Substitute Ideal circuit model into the
circuit
iii. Solve for diode current and voltage
using Linear circuit analysis techniques
iv. If the solution is consistent with the
assumption, then the initial assumption is
correct else opposite to that initially assumed
O Battery = 1.0V, Diode = , Resistor = 1kΩ
O ON:
O Consistent with initial assumption

+ -

1V +

O 0
O KVL :- 1.0V = + 1000 = against the initial
assumption < 0
 Determine whether the Ideal Diode is
conducting
Given data: R1= 4Ω; R2 =
O R1 R36Ω ;
R3 = 8Ω ; = 10V; = 9V
v R2
Assume that the diode
does not conduct: v1 & v2
= R2/(R1 + R2)
=6/10*10 = 6V

Applying KVL to the RHS

= 6 – 9 = - 2V
Reverse biased confirming
the initial assumption
The antithesis assumption implies that we use a short
circuit conducting
nodal circuit analysis
since the diode is assumed to act as a short circuit

10/4 + 9/8 = (1/4 + 1/6 + 1/8)

2.5 + 1.13 = [6+4+3/24]

3.63 = [18/24]
=3.63[24/18] = 4.84

= implies that current is flowing in the reverse direction.

Observation not consistent with the initial assumption
O offset Diode Model
O Better approximation of large scale characteristics of a
physical semiconductor diode
O It consists of an ideal diode in series with a 0.6V battery

Technique for determining the conduction state

i. Assume the conduction state (on or off)

ii. Substitute Ideal circuit model into the circuit

iii. Solve for diode current and voltage using Linear
circuit analysis techniques
iv. If the solution is consistent with the assumption,
then the initial assumption is correct else opposite
to that initially assumed
O Half-wave rectification using the offset model
Compute and plot the rectified load voltage in
the circuit below
Given =0.6V

+ +
_

Assume diode is off

OFF:
The resulting circuit gives

for mplies that

/R

Source and rectified load voltage

Find the value of
In the circuit below

R1 D1

R2

Given data
R1=1.5kΩ, R2=700Ω
Assume Diode off Replace circuit with offset
diode model ++
= - 3.6 implies that > 3.6V for it to conduct
Small signal diode model
Short circuit approximation is not adequate to represent
small signal behaviour of diodes
Represent the response of diodes to small time varying
signals superimposed on the average diode current and
voltage
to first-order approximation the i-v xtics of a linear resistor
for V>model as a resistor once conducting
To account for the slope
Load line analysis method = small signal resistance
Thevenin equivalent circuit and applying KVL (operation
of the circuit explained by the 2 equations below)

Diode equation
= (- 1)
O The load line equation obtained by applying
KVL is the line with the slope -1/R and
ordinate y intercept given by
- + load line equation

O The superposition of these two curves give

rise to the plot where the solutions of the 2
equations is graphically found as the pair ()
(numerical)
O The intersection of the 2 curves is called the
quiescent (operating) point or Q point

O connected as in the figure with the diode

appearing as the load
 Q point ()

Graphical solution to the 2 equations

O Determining the operating point of a diode
i. reduce the circuit to a Thevenin or Norton
equivalent with the diode as load
ii. Write the load-line equation
iii. Solve numerically 2 simultaneous equations
in 2 unknowns (load-line and diode equations)
for the diode current and voltage or
iv. Solve graphically by finding the intersection
of the diode curves (data sheet) with the load-
line curves. The intersection of the 2 curves is
the operating point
O Determine the operating point for the IN941 diode
and compute the total power output of the 12V
battery in the circuit below using load-line and diode
equation (nonlinear model)
R1 R3

Vs R2
R D1

R4
O Given parameters Vs=12V, R1=50Ω, R2=10Ω
R3=R4=20Ω
Thevenin equivalent (reduce for load-line analysis)
= R3+R4 + (R1//R2) = 43.33

Vs = 10/60 x 12 = 2V
Equivalent circuit
Plot with y intercept at =41mA and x intercept at
this gives

= 12
KCL = +
=
=/
O PIECEWISE LINEAR DIODE MODEL
Open circuit OFF state
Linear resistor in series with
= at (
acts as a linear resistance whose i-v
characteristics is the tangent to the diode curve
at the Q point

more accurate linear representation of the diode

once its conduction state has been established
Very useful in illustrating the performance of the
diode in a real world applications
Compute the incremental (small signal)
resistance of a diode using the diode equation
Given =A, kT/q =0.025V (at T = 300K), ; kT /q =
0.025 V (at T = 300 K); =50mA.
Assumption use the approximate diode equation
= ……. i
incremental diode resistance
= at
=
From i
= 0.731 V
== 0.025
account for the nonlinear behaviour of the
diode above the offset voltage
 Q point ()

Piecewise Linear Diode Model

Determine the load voltage in the rectifier
circuit below using piecewise diode model
. Plot the transfer characteristics i.e.
Solution
0.6V

𝑣𝑆
𝑅𝐿
KVL conduction state of the diode
+ 0.6+
- 0.6 -
for open circuit for negative values of
- 0.6
Ideal diode conduction condition

Once it conducts we replace ideal diode with

short circuit
Divider rule gives the load voltage
0 for

= for
 Practical diode circuits
Diodes as rectifiers, limiters and voltage
regulators (Zener)
Advanced rectifier circuits full-wave & bridge
rectifiers
Limiter & peak detector circuits
Zener diode exploit the Zener breakdown
phenomenon, a sharp reverse-bias breakdown i
with a relatively constant reverse breakdown v
(nearly constant DC voltage output)
Full-wave rectifier
conversion of AC into DC
Control of electric motors and consumer
electronic circuits AC-DC adapters
 𝑖1
1: 2 N (< or >1)
𝑖𝐿
+

_
𝑣𝑆 _
_+

𝑖2

FULL-WAVE RECTIFIER CIRCUIT

during positive half cycle of ideal diode D1=ON,
D2=OFF

During the negative half cycle

<
Direction of always
Twofold improvement in efficiency over half –wave
rectification of the source wave
BRIDGE RECTIFIER CIRCUIT
Available as a single IC, with diodes connected in a
bridge
D1 & D3 conducts positive half cycle while D2 &
D4 negative half cycle. Current flow same direction
O a
𝐷1

O a
𝑣 𝑆 (𝑡) c IC

b Rectifie
c

d
+
+
_ r

Ripples =Sequence of sinusoidal pulses at 2f

Fluctuation about the mean v

FULL-WAVE BRIDGE RECTIFIER

CIRCUIT
 Dc power supply, Zener diode and voltage regulation

Line voltage

Bridge Regulator Load

rectifie
r

Step down
transformer
Complete model for a Zener Diode

Assuming the is negligible wrt&in a Zener diode

V regulator
Zener diode reverse breakdown region

/
rated in terms of max allowable P dissipation
range for load V regulation
limited by Ze
limited by max supply i
Determine the min acceptable P rating of a Zener Diode
using the the piecewise linear diode model with
Given ,

𝑅𝑆
𝑉𝑍 𝑅𝐿

nominal case and

= 0.192 x 6 = 1.152W
Worst case
=0.24A
Max Power dissipation that the Zener diode must sustain
Signal processing (conditioning)
Limiters or Clippers, Clampers & peak detector
Clipper
Keep the load within a range
Protect load from excessive voltages

rs
D1 D2

vsVmax

2 sided diode clipper

O Peak detector circuit
O Employed in demodulation of AM signals
O Diode and capacitor similar to half wave
rectifier
O Clamper
O Capacitor and diode
O Forward direction
O Vout (t) = vs(t) – Vpeak for RC >> T
O Reverse bias
O Vout (t) = vs(t) + Vpeak
 transistors
BJT & FET
i. Basic operation
ii. Characteristics curves and large-signal model
parameters
iii. Operating state & point from measured data
iv. Large signal & small signal amplifier analysis

Transistor is a 3 terminal sc device that can

perform 2 fundamental functions ; amplification
& switching
Controlled-source models of a linear transistor
amplifier operation
 Controlled-source models of a linear transistor amplifier operation

Generate an output proportional to the input I or

V
The proportionality constant is called the
internal gain of the transistor
BJT behaves as a I controlled while FET is V
controlled device

_
CCCS CCVS
 +
+
+
_
_

_
VCVS VCCS
 Models of ideal transistor switch

_
CCS off (on ) VCS off (on )
 Determine the voltage gain of the amplifier circuit
below
C
C

B
V

C
+
V +_
+
+
_
E
C
Find ……………….i
V

cvs
x
From i = x
If then
from a =
_
b
+ n
+ from b KCL
_ a …p +
+¿ ¿
𝑛 KVL

a) When BE is f-b and C is open it acts as a diode

b) When BC is reverse biased es swept across to collector
Small controls much larger
where amplification factor 20-200
The operation of BJT can be explained by 2 i’s and 2 v’s

2 xtics curves
To determine the i-v xtics
Ideal source injects and BE jxn to be forward bias the
open collector BE i-v xtics curve is obtained by varying
Connecting a v source one can vary
By varying both
4 distinct regions
Cut-off region both r-biased
Active Linear region transistor can act as a linear
amplifier BE f-b and CB r-b
Saturation region both jxns f-b
Breakdown region determines the physical limit of
operation of device
SR AR

COR

Ideal test circuit to determine i-v xtics CE

output xtic
For each value of
Determining the operation region of BJT
Given B, C supply, b ,e & c vs&rs

= 0.7V

= 1/20000 =5µA

= 4/1000 =4mA
β=
V
𝑅𝐶
Determine the DC operating point for BJT
amplifier
Given b, e, c resistances, b,c supply voltages, c
xtics curves, BE jxn offset v
, , 10V, V
Find DC quiescent b and c currents and CE
voltage ()
Assume the transistor is in the active state
Load-line eqn for C circuit

Applying KVL around the base

=150µA intersection of load-line with the base

curve is the Q point of the amplifier defined by
O

O deeee
O oooo
PRACTICAL BJT SELF BIAS CIRCUIT

R1 Rc
Rc

RB
VCEVc Vcc
c
VBE
R2
VRBB
E

Base terminal Thevenin equiv

VBB = [R2/(R1+R2)]Vcc
Equiv resistance RB = R1//R2
Q point of DC self-biased cct
BE cct VBB = VBE + IBRB + IERE= IB{RB +(β +1)RE}+ VBE ---------i
Around C cct VCC = VCE + ICRC + IERE= IC{RC +(β +1/β)RE}+ VCE
IE = IB + IC = (1/β+1)Ic
From i IB= VBB-VBE/[RB+(β+1)RE] Ic=βIc
For CE
VCE = VCC - IC{RC +(β +1/β)RE} load-line eqn for bias cct
Effective load resistance seen by load cct is not Rc but Rc
+ RE

Numerical example
Given R1=50kΩ, R2=25k Ω, Rc=2.5kΩ, RE=1.5kΩ, Vcc=7.5V,
Vγ=0.6V
VBB= (R1/R1+R2)Vcc = (50/75)7.5=5V
RB =R1R2/R1+R2=1250/75=16.67 Ω
IB= VBB-VBE/[RB+(β+1)RE] =5-
0.6/1500+(100+1)1500=4.4/153000=28.75μA
Ic=βIc=100(28.75)=028mA
VCE = VCC - IC{RC +(β +1/β)RE}
=7.5 – 028m{2500+[(101)/100]1500}
=7.5-028m[2500+1515]
=
 Large signal model of BJT
3 basic modes of operation
When BE is reverse-biased =open cct=cutoff
region VBE=0, IB=0, ICEO=leakage current
Cut off state condition Active region
VBE<Vγ c VBE=Vγ
IB=0 ICEO IB>0
IC=ICEO IC=βIB Ic
VCE≥0 IB=0 VCE > Vγ IB
B
E Vγ

When BE is forward biased=short cct=active region

Base current is amplified by a factor β at the collector
When base current becomes sufficiently large VCE reaches
its saturation limit and Ic is no longer proportional to IB
this is called the saturation region
Saturated condition
VBE=Vγ Ic
IB>0 Vsat
Ic<βIB Vγ IB

VCE=Vsat