Module 2

Biomolecules and their Applications

HEMALATHA B R
R.L.J.I.T
 BIOMOLECULES AND THEIR
APPLICATIONS (QUALITATIVE)

Carbohydrates (cellulose-based water filters, PHA and PLA as bioplastics)

Nucleic acids (DNA Vaccine for Rabies and RNA vaccines for Covid19,
Forensics – DNA fingerprinting)

Proteins (Proteins as food – whey protein and meat analogs, Plant based
proteins)

lipids (biodiesel, cleaning agents/detergents)

Enzymes (glucose-oxidase in biosensors, lignolytic enzyme in bio-

bleaching).

Department of Allied Sciences BBOC/K407

 • Carbohydrates
• Lipids
• Proteins
• Nucleic Acid

Department of Allied Sciences BBOC/K407

 CARBOHYDRATES
• Important source of Energy
• Maintains health & survival of living beings
• Carbon, Hydrogen, oxygen, Nitrogen,
Phosphorous & Sulfur
• Cellular Process- Cellular signaling and

recognition,
-Regulating gene expressions
 Cellulose-Based Water Filters
• Cellulose-based water filters --cellulose, a
carbohydrate polymer plant cell walls.
• Remove impurities and contaminants from water
and
• High mechanical strength and hydrophilic properties
of cellulose make it an ideal material for water
filtration.
• Remove particles, pathogens, and other
contaminants from water, making it safer
• and more potable.
• household, industrial, and agricultural
applications.
• environmentally friendly alternative to
traditional filters, as they are biodegradable a
• produced from renewable resources.
 Properties of cellulose based water filter

• High Porosity
---efficiently remove impurities and
contaminants from water
• Biodegradability
• Cost-effective
• Renewable resource
• Good mechanical strength---maintain their
structure and perform effectively over time
• Chemical resistance---wide range of water
treatment applications
• Large surface area—a)enhances
their filtration capabilities
b)reduces the frequency of

filter replacement
Advantages of cellulose based water filters

• Environmentally friendly
• Cost-effective: wide range of customers
• High porosity
• Versatile--different sizes and shapes to fit
specific needs
• Good mechanical strength
• Chemical resistance
• Large surface area
Limitations of cellulose based water filters

• Low resistance to high temperature - lose their

structural integrity
• Low filtration efficiency for certain
contaminants-heavy metals
• Limited life span
• Difficult to sterilize--increases the risk of
contamination
• May clog easily
• May affect water taste
 Construction of cellulose-based water
filters
1.Cellulose Material Selection
2. Cellulose Preparation
3. Cellulose Layer Formation
4. Filter Medium Attachment
5. Chemical Treatment

Department of Physics 21BE45

• Cellulose Material Selection: strength, porosity, and
chemical resistance paper, cotton, and wood fibers.
• Cellulose Preparation: cutting it into small pieces,
washing it to remove impurities, and drying it for use.
• Cellulose Layer Formation: The cellulose material is formed
into a layer by either stacking it or compacting it using heat
and pressure.
• Filter Medium Attachment: The cellulose layer is attached
to a filter medium such as a mesh or a support structure -
stability and increase the filter surface area.
• Chemical Treatment: chemically treated to modify its
properties, such as increasing its hydrophilicity or adding
antimicrobial agents.
 • Housing Assembly: chemically treated to
modify its properties, such as increasing its
hydrophilicity or adding antimicrobial agents.
• Filter Testing: filtration efficiency and flow
rate

Department of Physics 21BE45

 Cellulose material used in house hold water
filters
Cellulose acetate synthetic form of cellulose
Properties
Good chemical resistance
High porosity
High flow rate

NOTE:
Low-cost material - accessible for household applications
OTHER MATERIALS : Paper, Cotton and Wood fibers
 Bioplastic
• Made from renewable resources, such as sugar,
vegetable oil and cornstarch -environmentally
friendly
• Traditional petroleum-based plastics which are toxic
and non-biodegradable plastics
Eg: PHA and PLA
Bioplastics are basically classified as bio based and/or
biodegradable .
Not all bio-based plastics are biodegradable and
similarly not all biodegradable plastics are bio based.
 Bioplastic
• Bio based - material - of the carbon building block
NOT where it ends up at the end of its cycle life.
• Biodegradable -broken down with the effect of the
right environmental conditions and microbes -used as
a food source.
• Compostable -180 days, a complete microbial
assimilation of the fragmented food source -compost
environment.
 PLA & PHA
• PLA-Biobased and biodegradable under industrial composting
conditions (at a high temperature, around 58 °C).
• Good mechanical properties, processability, renewability, and non-
toxicity, most commercially promising bioplastics.
• Better durability, transparency, and mechanical strength.
• PHAs -polymer family that are 100% bio-based and bio-degradable.
• Microbiologically produced polyesters -tunable physical and
mechanical properties.
• Biodegradability and non-toxicity nature.
• Range from brittle thermoplastics to gummy elastomers
• Properties can be altered by the selection of bacteria, fermentation
conditions, and substrate.
• Flexible properties- substitute PP, polyethylene (PE), and polystyrene
(PS), polymers of today's global polymer market.
 Properties of PHA
• Biodegradability : Breakdown into water and carbon
dioxide, reducing their impact on the environment.

• Biocompatibility: medical devices - sutures and

implants

• Mechanical properties: similar to traditional

petroleumbased- various applications.

• Processing : conventional plastic processing techniques,

such as injection molding, blow molding, and extrusion.
 Engineering applications of PHA bioplastic

• Packaging: food containers, beverage cups, and

clamshell containers.
• Textiles: biodegradable textiles, as well as for the
production of biodegradable composites for use in
construction and furniture.
• Agricultural Mulch Films: mulch films for agriculture
to reduce soil erosion and conserve moisture.
• Consumer Goods: toys, phone cases, and water
bottles.
 Engineering applications of PHA bioplastic
• Automotive: biodegradable automotive parts such as
air ducts and headlamp covers.
• Electronic Devices: components in
• electronic devices such as smartphones and laptops.
• Aerospace: PHA is used for the production of
biodegradable parts in aerospace applications, insulation
and cable management.
• Sporting Good: golf tees and fishing lures.
• Construction: PHA is used for the production of
biodegradable insulation and sound proofing materials.
 PLA as Bioplastic
• Polylactic Acid (PLA) is a biodegradable
and bio-based plastic made from corn
starch, sugarcane, or other natural resources.
• Biodegradable in industrial composting
facilities
---not break down in the environment as
quickly as advertised
---negative impacts on wildlife and
ecosystems if not properly disposed off
 Properties of PLA as bioplastic
• Biodegradable: broken down by microorganisms in
industrial composting facilities, reducing waste in landfills.
• Renewable: renewable resources such as corn starch or
sugarcane,
• Clear/Transparent: packaging applications.
• Heat-resistant: low melting temperature -not recommended
for high heat applications-shape and stability up to 60°C.
• Biocompatible: non-toxic and biocompatible, making it
suitable for food packaging and medical devices.
• Stiffness and Strength: good stiffness and strength, but not
as strong as traditional petroleum-based plastics.
• Printability: 3D printing due to its good printability and ease
of use.
 Engineering applications of PLA bioplastic
• Automotive parts
• Electronic Device
• Aerospace
• Sporting
• Construction
• Agricultural Equipment : agricultural equipment
such as seed trays and greenhouse film.
• Medical Equipment : medical equipment such as
diagnostic equipment and hospital bed
 LIPIDS
Lipids are fatty, waxy, or oily compounds that
are soluble in organic solvents and insoluble in
polar solvents such as water

• Fats and oils (triglycerides)

• Phospholipids
• Waxes
• Steroids
 BIODIESEL

• Biodiesel is an alternative fuel similar to

conventional or ‘fossil’ diesel.
• Biodiesel can be produced from straight
vegetable oil, animal oil/fats, tallow and waste
cooking oil.
• The process used to convert these oils to
Biodiesel is called transesterification
 BIODIESEL

• Source of suitable oil----

oil crops such as rapeseed, palm or soybean.

• Biodiesel produced at present ----

waste vegetable oil sourced from
restaurants, chip shops, industrial food
producers such as Birdseye etc.
COURTESY: WEI JIN
 DETERGENTS

• The hydrophobic end of the phospholipid

bilayer stays away from the water.
• This avoids the dissolution of cell membrane
in water.
• But the detergent can bind to the
hydrophobic end of the cell membrane and
form a solution with water, thus breaking the
cell membrane barrier.
 DETERGENTS

• Detergent monomers solubilize membrane

proteins by partitioning into the membrane
bilayer.
• With increasing amounts of detergents,
membranes undergo various stages of
solubilization.
• The initial stage is lysis or rupture of the
membrane.
LIPIDS

COURTESY: FAZAL SHAIK

 ENZYMES
• Biomolecule, which are proteins that help speed up
metabolism, or the chemical reactions in our bodies

They build some substances and break others down

• Hydrolases,
• Oxidoreductases
• Lyases
• Transferases
• ligases
• Isomerases
• Enzymes - biological catalysts-biocatalysts
that speed up biochemical reactions in living
organisms.
--extracted from cells - then used to catalyze a
wide range of commercially important
processes.
• Each enzyme has an “active site” which has a
unique shape. The substance an enzyme
works on is a substrate which also has a
unique shape
• The enzyme and the substrate must fit
together to work.
• The enzyme is not destroyed during the
reaction and is used over and over.
• A cell contains thousands of different types
of enzyme molecules- each specific to a
particular chemical reaction
• Optimum conditions to work--
• If conditions aren’t right--enzymes can
change shape --the substrate no longer fits
and reaction doesn’t occur
Glucose-Oxidase in Biosensors
• Glucose oxidase (GOx) --enzyme used in
biosensors for the detection of glucose levels--
blood and urine
• enzyme catalyzes --oxidation of glucose to
gluconolactone and hydrogen peroxide
(H2O2), ---detected and quantified by a
transducer.
• Glucose oxidase (GOx)---reduce oxygen to
hydrogen peroxide while at the same time
transforming glucose to d-glucono-1,5-lactone.
 • Quantification of glucose can be achieved---
based on either the detection of the hydrogen
peroxide produced or the oxygen consumed.
• GOx is typically immobilized on a substrate,
such as a polymeric film, to ensure stability
and specificity.
• The transducer in the biosensor --electrode, a
fluorescence-based system, or other type of
sensor, depending on the desired level of
sensitivity and specificity

Deprtment of Physics 21BE45

 Advantages of Biosensors
• Sensitivity
• Specificity
• Rapid response
• Time Portability
• Cost-effectiveness
 Limitations of Biosensors
• Stability
• Interferences
• Calibration
• Limited shelf-life
• Complexity
 Lignolytic Enzyme in Bio-Bleaching
Bio-Bleaching
Biological agents enzymes laccases, peroxidases, and
manganese peroxidases---to remove color and
brighten fibers, paper, and textiles.

• These enzymes catalyze the oxidation of colored

impurities in the fibers, resulting in a brighter and
more uniform color.

Traditional chemical bleaching methods that use harsh

chemicals, such as hydrogen peroxide and chlorine.
• Laccases are copper-containing oxidases that
catalyze the oxidation of lignin, a complex polymer
found in plant cell walls, as well as other
compounds such as phenols and aryl alcohols.

• Peroxidases are enzymes that use hydrogen

peroxide to oxidize organic compounds.

• Manganese peroxidases are enzymes that use

hydrogen peroxide to oxidize lignin and other
compounds.
• The lignolytic enzymes used in bio-bleaching
are typically produced by fungi or bacteria,
----immobilized on a support, such as a
ceramic bead or a cellulosic matrix----stability
and prolonged activity.

• The immobilized enzymes are then added to

the fibers---where they catalyze the oxidation
of colored impurities, resulting in a brighter
and more uniform color.
 NUCLEIC ACIDS
• Nucleic acids are biopolymers that play a
crucial role in the storage and transfer of
genetic information in all living organisms

• Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)

• Ribonucleic acid (RNA)

 DNA Vaccine
• piece of viral or bacterial DNA to stimulate an
immune response against the pathogen
• produce viral or bacterial proteins
• -proteins are then displayed on the surface of
the cells
• which triggers an immune
• production of antibodies against the pathogen
• cancer, rabies, influenza, and human
immunodeficiency virus (HIV).
 DNA Vaccine for Rabies
• piece of viral or bacterial DNA to stimulate an
immune response against the rabies
• produce viral or bacterial proteins
• -proteins are then displayed on the surface of
the cells
• which triggers an immune
• production of antibodies against the rabies
 Importance of DNA vaccine for rabies
• stimulate a strong and long-lasting immune
response
• fewer doses required
• ease of manufacture and storage
key advantages
• Efficacy- Both for animals and humans
• Long-lasting protection-extended periods of time
• Ease of administration: Injection or Oral
• Cost-effective
• Reduced risk of side effects: do not contain live
virus particles
 RNA Vaccines
• use genetic material from a pathogen, in the
form of RNA
• produce viral or bacterial proteins
• proteins are then displayed on the surface of
the cells
• which triggers an immune
• production of antibodies against the pathogen
 Importance of RNA vaccine for COVID 19
• Faster production time and the ability to target multiple
antigens
• Manufactured quickly, making them a good option for
emergency situations
• safer-do not contain any live virus or bacteria that could
cause disease
• COVID 19, influenza, and cancer
key advantages
• Efficacy- Both for animals and humans
• Long-lasting protection-extended periods of time
• Ease of administration: Injection or Oral
• Cost-effective
• Reduced risk of side effects: do not contain live virus particles
 Importance of RNA
key advantages
vaccine for Covid 19
• Efficacy- Pfizer-BioNTech and Moderna mRNA vaccines -
efficacy rates of around 95% in clinical trials
• Rapid development- Pandemic- initial discovery of the
viral genome to emergency use authorization-11
months
• Easy to modify- to target new strains or variants of the
virus
• Reduced risk of side effects: do not contain live virus
particles-instructing cells to produce a harmless piece of
the virus (spike protein)
• Influenza, HIV, and Zika, as well as in the treatment of
cancer
 Forensics – DNA Fingerprinting

• DNA fingerprinting: DNA profiling or genetic

fingerprinting

• To identify an individual based on their unique

DNA profile

• analyzing specific regions of an individual's

DNA, called markers
 Working of DNA fingerprinting for
forensic applications
• DNA fingerprinting: DNA profiling or genetic
fingerprinting

• To identify an individual based on their unique

DNA profile

• analyzing specific regions of an individual's

DNA, called markers
 Working of DNA fingerprinting for forensic
applications
• Sample collection: DNA is extracted from a biological
sample, such as blood, semen, or hair--purified and
processed to isolate the DNA.
• DNA amplification: technique -polymerase chain reaction
(PCR)--many copies of a specific DNA region,
--more accurate analysis
• DNA analysis: The amplified DNA--analyzed using a
technique gel electrophoresis. The DNA fragments are
separated based on size and charge, and a DNA profile is
generated
• DNA comparison: The DNA profile of biological sample -
compared to the DNA profiles of other individuals, such
as suspects or victims, to determine if there is a match.
 Why…..
• Artificial intelligence (AI) is beginning to play a
more prominent role in DNA analysis
• development of automated DNA profiling
systems based on their unique DNA profile

• The DNA profile consists of a series of bands on

a gel, which represent specific DNA fragments.
• The bands are compared to those from a
control sample
DNA Vaccine production

COURTESY: BABIUK
RNA Vaccine production
 Proteins

• Protein is found throughout the body

• Proteins are large, complex molecules made
up of chains of smaller building blocks called
amino acids
• vital role in the structure, function, and
regulation of cells, tissues, and organs.
 Functions of Proteins

• Catalyzing chemical reactions

• Transporting molecules
• Providing mechanical support
• Regulating cell behavior,immune responses,
hormone regulation, and muscle contraction
• 20 different types of amino acids, and the
specific sequence of amino acids in a protein
determines its unique structure and function.
 Functions of Proteins

• Proteins are synthesized by cells from the

genetic information encoded in DNA.
• The process of protein synthesis begins when
the genetic code for a particular protein is
transcribed into a molecule of messenger RNA
(mRNA).
• The mRNA is then transported out of the
nucleus and into the cytoplasm, where it is
translated into a protein by ribosomes.
 Proteins as Food

• Proteins are synthesized by cells from the

genetic information encoded in DNA.
• Proteins are essential nutrients that provide
the body with amino acids, which are the
building blocks of the body's tissues.
• Proteins are found in many different foods,
including meat, poultry, fish, dairy products,
beans, lentils, tofu, and eggs.
 Proteins as Food

• Proteins are a vital component of a healthy

diet, as they help to build and repair tissues,
• support immune function, and regulate
various metabolic processes. The body also
uses proteins as a source of energy when
carbohydrates and fats are not available.
• The quality of proteins in food is determined
by the types of amino acids they contain, as
well as the amount of each type of amino
acid.
 Whey protein as food

• Whey protein is a type of protein derived from

the liquid that separates from milk during the
cheese-making process
• It is a complete protein, meaning it contains all
of the essential amino acids the body needs to
build and repair tissues
• Whey protein is widely used as a dietary
supplement, particularly by athletes,
bodybuilders, and people looking to increase
their protein intake
 Whey protein as food
• It is commonly added to smoothies, shakes, and
other beverages, and is also available in powder
form that can be mixed into other foods or
beverages.
• Compared to other types of protein, whey protein
is rapidly absorbed by the body and is high in
branched-chain amino acids, which are essential
for muscle growth and repair
• It is also a good source of essential nutrients,
including calcium, potassium, and vitamins B2 and
B12
 Use of whey protein as food

• Whey protein is a type of protein derived from

cow's milk and is commonly used as a food
supplement
• Sports nutrition
• Weight management
• Health promotion
• Meal replacement
 Meat analogs of protein as food

Tempeh
Tofu
 Meat analogs of protein as food

Seitan Veggie burgers

 Meat analogs of protein as food

Plant-based sausages
Meatless meatballs
 Use of whey protein as food
• Legumes, grains, nuts, and seeds
• Sustainable-require fewer resources to produce
and generate fewer greenhouse gas emissions.
• Nutrient-rich
• Versatile
• Hypoallergenic
• Cost-effective
Soy protein, pea protein, lentil protein,
chickpea
protein, and hemp protein
Meat analogues
THANK YOU