Module - 3

HUMAN ORGAN SYSTEMS AND BIO DESIGNS

(QUALITATIVE)

Hemalatha B R
RLJIT
• Brain as a CPU system
---architecture
---Central Nervous System
--- Peripheral Nervous System
• Signal transmission
• EEG
 Brain as a CPU System
Highly sophisticated and complex information
processing system---computer's Central Processing
Unit (CPU).

Both the brain and CPU receive and process inputs,

store information, and perform calculations to produce
outputs.

Learn and adapt, while a computer's CPU does not.

Capable of performing tasks such as perception,

thought, and emotion, which are beyond the scope of
a computer's CPU
 CNS & PNS
• The nervous system has two main parts: The
central nervous system is made up of the
brain and spinal cord.

• The peripheral nervous system is made up of

nerves that branch off from the spinal cord
and extend to all parts of the body
CNS ----brain and spinal cord. The brain is the
body’s “control center.”
The CNS has various centers located within it
that carry out the sensory, motor and
integration of data.
These centers can be subdivided to Lower
Centers (including the spinal cord and brain
stem) and higher centers communicating with
the brain via effectors
• PNS is a vast network of spinal and cranial
nerves that are linked to the brain and the
spinal cord.
• Sensory receptors which help in processing
changes in the internal and external
environment.
• This information is sent to the CNS via afferent
sensory nerves.
• Subdivided into the autonomic nervous
system and the somatic nervous system.
• Subdivided into the autonomic nervous
system and the somatic nervous system.
• The autonomic has involuntary control of
internal organs, blood vessels, smooth
and cardiac muscles.
• The somatic has voluntary control of skin,
bones, joints, and skeletal muscle.
• The two systems function together, by
way of nerves from the PNS entering and
becoming part of the CNS, and vice versa
Architecture Parallel
distributed
processing
system, as
opposed to
the Von
Neumann
architecture of
traditional
computers
• Information is processed in a, distributed
manner across multiple regions each
with specialized functions, rather than
being processed sequentially in a single
centralized location.
• Computer's CPU has an arithmetic logic
unit (ALU) to perform mathematical
calculation
• The human brain has specialized regions
for processing mathematical and logical
operations.
• Prefrontal cortex, higher-level cognitive
functions such as decision making and
problem solving
Computer's CPU also has memory units for storing information

Human brain has several regions dedicated to memory storage,

including the hippocampus and amygdala.
A neuron sending a signal (i.e., a presynaptic neuron)
releases a chemical called a neurotransmitter, which
binds to a receptor on the surface of the receiving (i.e.,
postsynaptic) neuron.
Neurotransmitters are released from presynaptic
terminals, which may branch to communicate with
several postsynaptic neurons
 SIGNAL TRANSMISSION
• Axon terminals are where neurotransmission begins.
• Axon terminals---the neuron sends its OUTPUT to
other neurons.
• At electrical synapses, the OUTPUT will be the
electrical signal itself.
• At chemical synapses, the OUTPUT will be
neurotransmitter.
• The correct outline for the sequence of transmission
of an electrical impulse through a neuron is dendrites,
cell body, axon, axon terminal
Tdendrites ,
cell body,
axon, axon
terminal

COURTESY: OPENSTAX COLLEGE,BIOLOGY

• A neuron receives inputs from other neurons at its
dendrites, integrates the information, and then
generates an electrical impulse, or action potential,
that travels down its axon to the synaptic terminals.

• At the synaptic terminals, the neuron releases chemical

neurotransmitters, which cross the synaptic gap and
bind to receptors on the postsynaptic neuron, leading
to the initiation of another action potential in the
postsynaptic neuron.
 Different types of
neurotransmitters have different
effects on postsynaptic neurons,

and

the balance of neurotransmitter

levels can influence brain
function, including mood,
learning, and memory.
 EEG- Electro Encephalo Graphy
• Non-invasive method for measuring
the electrical activity of the brain.
• Records the electrical signals
generated by the brain's neurons as
they communicate with each other.
• The signals are recorded through
electrodes placed on the scalp and
the resulting EEG pattern provides
information about the synchronized
electrical activity of large
populations of neurons
Applications of EEG

• Diagnosis of Epilepsy: Determine the location of the seizure

focus.

• Sleep Studies: EEG is often used in sleep studies to evaluate sleep

patterns and diagnose sleep disorders.

• Brain-Computer Interfaces (BCI): EEG can be used to control

external devices brain waves associated with a particular mental
state, such as concentration such as prosthetic limbs or computer
software. This is done by detecting specific location or relaxation.
 Applications of EEG

• Research on Brain Function: EEG is used in research to

study brain function during various activities such as
reading, problem-solving, and decision-making. EEG can
also be used to investigate how the brain responds to
stimuli such as light, sound, and touch.

• Diagnosis of Brain Disorders: EEG can be used to

diagnose a wide range of brain disorders including
dementia, Parkinson's disease, and traumatic brain injury.

.
Department of Physics 21BE45
• Anesthesia Monitoring: EEG can be used to
monitor the depth of anesthesia during surgery to
ensure that the patient remains in a safe and
comfortable state.

• Monitoring Brain Activity during Coma: EEG is

also used to monitor brain activity in patients
who are in a coma to determine the level of brain
function and assess the likelihood of recovery
 • Heart as a pump system
-----Architecture

• Electrical signalling

• ECG monitoring

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 Heart as a Pump System

Department of Physics 21BE45

Four chambers:
Blood enters the Oxygenated blood
Right atrium right atrium from returns to the heart
the body and is and enters the left
Left atrium pumped into the atrium, which pumps
right ventricle, the blood into the left
Right ventricle ventricle. The left
which then pumps
Left ventricle the blood to the ventricle then pumps
lungs for the oxygenated blood
oxygenation. out to the rest of the
body.

Department of Physics 21BE45

• Between each chamber-- valves that ensure the blood flows
in the correct direction and prevent backflow.

• The heart--surrounded ---pericardium---a sac that contains

a small amount of fluid and helps to protect and lubricate
the heart as it beats.

• The myocardium of the heart wall--- made up extensive

network of blood vessels----supply of oxygen and nutrients
to function efficiently----- to remove waste products.

Department of Physics 21BE45

 ELECTRICAL SIGNALING

The heart's pumping

action is controlled
by a complex
network of electrical
and chemical
signals, which
generate the rhythm
of the heartbeat

Department of Physics 21BE45

 An electrical stimulus is generated in a
special part of the heart muscle called the
sinus node--- sinoatrial node (SA node).

Small mass of special tissue in the right

upper chamber of the heart (right atrium).
Adult----regular electrical pulse 60 to 100
times per minute.

Department of Physics 21BE45

 • This electrical pulse travels down through the
conduction pathways and causes the heart's
lower chambers (ventricles) to contract and
pump out blood.

• Right and left atria are stimulated first and

contract to push blood from the atria into the
ventricles.
• The ventricles then contract to push blood out
into the blood vessels of the body.

Department of Physics 21BE45

 Electrical Signalling – ECG Monitoring and Heart
Related Issues
The heart's pumping action is controlled by
electrical signaling, which generates the rhythm
of the heartbeat.

This electrical signaling can be monitored

using an electrocardiogram (ECG), which
records the electrical activity of the heart and
provides important information
about the heart's function

Department of Physics 21BE45

 Electrical Signalling – ECG Monitoring and Heart
Related Issues

An ECG measures the electrical signals

produced by the heart as it beats and generates
a trace or waveform that reflects the electrical
activity of the heart.

This trace can be used to diagnose heart

conditions and monitor the heart's function.

Department of Physics 21BE45

 • Arrhythmias: Abnormalities in the heart's rhythm or
rate can be detected using an ECG.

• Heart disease: Changes in the heart's electrical

activity can indicate the presence of heart disease,
such as coronary artery disease or heart attacks.

• Heart attack: An ECG can help diagnose a heart

attack by detecting changes in the heart's electrical
activity that indicate a lack of blood flow to the
heart.
ECG is a useful tool for diagnosing and monitoring
heart-related issues and helps to provide important
information about the heart's function and health.
Department of Physics 21BE45
 ECG is a useful tool for
diagnosing and monitoring
heart-related issues and helps
to provide important
information about the heart's
function and health

Department of Physics 21BE45

 ECG waves and their relation to heart nodes
Department of Physics 21BE45
Lungs as Purifier
 Lungs as Purifier
The lung purifies air by removing harmful substances and
adding oxygen to the bloodstream.
Filtration: The nose and mouth serve as a first line of
defense against harmful substances in the air, such as dust,
dirt, and bacteria. The tiny hairs in the nose, called cilia, and
the mucus ---trap these substances and prevent them from
entering the lungs.
Moisturization: Humidified ---moist lining of the respiratory
tract, which helps to keep the airways moist and prevent
them from drying out.
Gas Exchange: Air reaches the alveoli--- oxygen diffuses
across the thin alveolar and capillary walls into the
bloodstream, and
carbon dioxide diffuses in the opposite direction, from the
bloodstream into the alveoli to be exhaled.
Architecture of Lungs as Purification System

The architecture of the

lung is designed to
maximize surface area
for efficient gas
exchange.

Trachea
Bronchi
Bronchioles
Alveoli.
Trachea: Airway that leads from the larynx (voice box)
to the lungs.
It is lined with cilia and mucus-secreting glands that
help to filter out harmful substances and trap them in
the mucus.
Bronchi: The trachea branches into two main bronchi,
one for each lung. The bronchi are larger airways that
continue to branch into smaller airways called
bronchioles
Bronchioles: The bronchioles are smaller airways that
lead to the alveoli. They are surrounded by---alveoli,
which are the sites of gas exchange.

Alveoli: The alveoli are tiny air sacs that are lined with a
network of capillaries. This close proximity of the alveoli
and capillaries allows for efficient diffusion of oxygen
and carbon dioxide between the air in the alveoli and the
bloodstream.
ILLUSTRATED BY D.M. GOMEZ
 Gas Exchange Mechanism of Lung

The gas exchange mechanism in the lung involves the

transfer of oxygen from the air in the alveoli to the
bloodstream, and the transfer of carbon dioxide from
the bloodstream to the air in the alveoli.
----DIFFUSION
Differences in partial pressures of oxygen and carbon
dioxide.
Oxygen Diffusion: The partial pressure of oxygen in
the air in the alveoli is higher than the partial pressure
of oxygen in the bloodstream---Gradient
---oxygen to diffuse from the alveoli into the
bloodstream
---binds to hemoglobin in red blood cells to form
oxyhemoglobin.

Carbon Dioxide Diffusion: The partial pressure of

carbon dioxide in the bloodstream is higher than the
partial pressure of carbon dioxide in the air in the
alveoli---Gradient
---carbon dioxide to diffuse from the bloodstream into
the alveoli, where it is exhaled.
 Spirometry
Diagnostic test that measures the function of the lungs by
measuring the amount and flow rate of air that can be
exhaled. The test is commonly used to diagnose lung
conditions such as asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary
disease (COPD), and interstitial lung disease.
Spirometers can be divided
into two basic groups:
• Volume-measurement
devices (e.g. wet and
dry spirometers).
Spirometer • Flow-measurement
devices (e.g.
pneumotachograph
systems, mass flow
meters).
• Principle: Measure the volume of air that can be
exhaled from the lungs in a given time period. -------
provide information about the functioning of the
lungs and the ability of the lungs to move air in and
out.
• Working: Spirometry is performed using a
spirometer, a device that consists of a mouthpiece, a
flow sensor, and a volume sensor. The patient is
asked to exhale as much air as possible into the
spirometer, and the spirometer measures the
volume and flow rate of the exhaled air. The volume
of air exhaled is displayed on a graph called a flow-
volume loop--- information about the lung function.
Abnormal Lung Physiology - COPD
Abnormal lung physiology refers to any deviation from the
normal functioning of the respiratory system.
---Diseases, injuries, or genetic conditions.

Asthma: A chronic inflammatory disease that causes the

airways to narrow, making it difficult to breathe.
Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD): A
progressive lung disease that makes it hard to breathe and
can include conditions such as emphysema and chronic
bronchitis.
Pulmonary fibrosis: A disease in which scar tissue builds up
in the lungs, making it difficult to breathe and reducing lung
function.
Pneumonia: An infection in the lungs that can cause
inflammation and fluid buildup in the air sacs.
Pulmonary embolism: A blockage in one of the
pulmonary arteries, usually by a blood clot, which can
cause lung damage and reduce oxygen flow to the body.

Lung cancer: A type of cancer that originates in the lung

and can impair lung function by interfering with normal
air flow and oxygen exchange.

Medications, lifestyle changes, or surgery.

---prompt medical attention ---shortness of breath,
wheezing, or chest pain, as these can be indicative of a
serious lung problem.
 Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease
Group of progressive lung diseases that cause breathing
difficulties. It's characterized by persistent airflow
limitation that is not fully reversible. The two main forms
of COPD are chronic bronchitis and emphysema.

Airways and small air sacs (alveoli) in the lungs become

damaged or blocked---difficulty in exhaling air.
---decrease in lung function, leading to shortness of
breath, wheezing, and coughing.
---limit a person's ability to perform everyday activities.
 Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease
• The primary cause of COPD is long-term exposure to irritants such as
tobacco smoke, air pollution, and dust. Other risk factors include a
history of frequent lung infections, a family history of lung disease, and
exposure to second-hand smoke.

• There is no cure for COPD, but treatment can help manage the
symptoms and slow the progression of the disease

---Medication, such as bronchodilators and steroids, oxygen therapy, and

lung rehabilitation surgery may also be an option.

Quitting smoking and avoiding exposure to irritants is crucial in managing

COPD.
 Ventilators

Medical devices used to assist or control breathing in individuals

who are unable to breathe adequately on their own
Treatment of acute respiratory failure, such as pneumonia, severe
asthma, and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD).

Different types of ventilators:

volume-controlled ventilators,
pressure-controlled ventilators,
and bilevel positive airway
pressure (BiPAP) devices.
• Ventilators ---pressurized air or oxygen into the
lungs through a breathing tube or mask.
The pressure---adjusted to match the patient's needs
and to help maintain adequate oxygen levels in the
blood.
• Ventilators can be lifesaving for individuals with
acute respiratory failure---potential risks and
complications. Prolonged use of a ventilator --
ventilator-associated pneumonia-- discomfort or pain
from the breathing tube.
• Potential risks and complications---reduced
monitored and managed by healthcare professionals.
 Heart-Lung Machine
Cardiopulmonary bypass machine--device used in
cardiovascular surgery to temporarily take over the
functions of the heart and lungs. --Open-heart
surgery, coronary artery bypass graft (CABG) surgery
and valve replacement surgery.

Circulates blood outside of the body through a series

of tubes and pumps. Blood is taken from the body,
oxygenated, and then returned to the body---Heart to
be stopped during the surgery without causing any
harm to the patient.
RISKS
Blood clots, bleeding, and infections.
Long-term effects on the body, such as cognitive
decline, are not yet fully understood. Heart-
lung machine has revolutionized the field of
cardiovascular surgery, allowing for more
complex procedures to be performed and
greatly improving patient outcomes.
 Artificial Lungs

Devices designed to mimic the function of the

natural respiratory system---support patients
with acute respiratory distress syndrome
(ARDS) or acute lung injury (ALI) and to help
the patient's own lungs recover and heal

There are two main types of artificial lungs:

Membrane oxygenators and Extracorporeal
lung assist devices
• Membrane Oxygenators: Semipermeable membrane to
transfer oxygen and carbon dioxide between the blood and
the air.
• The blood is pumped through the membrane, where it
comes into contact with air, allowing for the exchange of
gases.
• Extracorporeal Lung Assist Devices: Removing carbon
dioxide from the blood and adding oxygen, allowing the
patient's natural lungs to rest and heal. One example of an
extracorporeal lung assist device is the extracorporeal
membrane oxygenation
• (ECMO) machine, which is used to treat patients with
severe respiratory failure. ECMO works by removing carbon
dioxide from the blood and adding oxygen, and it can be
used as a bridge to recovery or as a bridge to lung
transplantation.
Representing veno-venous and veno-arterial extracorporeal membrane oxygenation
• Eye as a Camera system
• Architecture of rod and cone cells
• Optical corrections,
• Cataract
• Lens materials
• Bionic eye
Eye as a Camera System
• The Cornea: This transparent outer layer of the
eye---like a camera lens, bending light to focus it
onto the retina.
• The Iris:---like the diaphragm in a camera,
controlling the amount of light that enters the
eye.
• The Pupil:---like the aperture in a camera,
adjusting the size to control the amount of light
entering the eye.
• The Retina:---like the camera film or sensor,
capturing the light and converting it into
electrical signals that are sent to the brain.
• The Optic Nerve:---like the cable connecting
the camera to a computer, transmitting the
electrical signals from the retina to the brain.
• In both the eye and a camera, the captured
light is transformed into an image by the lens
and the light-sensitive component.
• The eye processes the image further, allowing
for visual perception, while a camera stores
the image for later use.
NOTE:
1. Adjusting for different levels of light and
adjusting focus, that are not found in a
camera.
2.The ability to perceive depth and color, as well
as adjust to movements and provide a
continuous, real-time image to the brain
 RODS AND CONES
Photoreceptors are localized around an area near the
centre of the retina called the macula, which is the
functional center of the retina.

Photoreceptors in the retina are classified into two

groups, named after their physical morphologies.

Rod cells are highly sensitive to light and function in

night vision at low light levels (scotopic vision). They do
not mediate color vision and have a low spatial acuity.
• Cone cells are capable of detecting a wide
spectrum of light photons and are responsible for
colour vision.
• Active at higher light levels (photopic vision), are
capable of color vision and are responsible for high
spatial acuity.
• Concentrated in the fovea, the central part of the
retina responsible for detailed and sharp vision.

• short-wavelength sensitive cones, S-cone(BLUE)

• middle-wavelength sensitive cones,
M-cones(GREEN)
• long-wavelength sensitive cones, L-cones(RED)
 Architecture
Rods and cones are structurally
compartmentalized.
FIVE principal regions

1. Outer segment

2. Connecting cilium

3. Inner segment

4. Nuclear region

5. Synaptic region
COURTESY: EASY BIOLOGY CLASS

Photoreceptor outer segment that contains the The inner segment

photopigment (rhodopsin in rods and photopigments contains the cell's
in cones) that absorbs light and triggers a change in organelles, including the
membrane potential. nucleus and
mitochondria.
 OPTICAL CORRECTIONS
• Devices or techniques used to improve or correct vision
problems caused by a refractive error in the eye.

• Refractive errors---light entering the eye is not properly

focused on the retina, leading to blurred vision.

• Myopia (nearsightedness): Light is focused in front of the

retina, making distant objects appear blurry.

• Hyper myopia (farsightedness): Light is focused behind the

retina, making near objects appear blurry.

• Astigmatism: Light is not focused evenly on the retina,

leading to blurred or distorted vision.
 Optical Corrections
• Eyeglasses: Glasses with corrective lenses can be used
to refocus light onto the retina, improving vision.
• Contact lenses: Corrective lenses in the form of
contacts sit directly on the cornea and work similarly
to eyeglasses.
• Refractive surgery: Surgical procedures-- LASIK and
PRK, can reshape the cornea to correct refractive
errors.
NOTE: Do not control the refractive error from
progressing.
Vision worsens over time---new glasses or contacts.
 CATARACT

COURTESY: THE EYE HEALTH CENTRE

• Clouding of the lens of the eye that affects
vision----proteins in the lens can clump together
and cause the lens to become opaque.
• Symptoms---blurred or hazy vision, increased
sensitivity to glare and bright lights, faded or
yellowed colors, and double vision in one eye.
frequent changes in prescription for eyeglasses
or contacts.
• Cloudy lens and replace it with an artificial lens.
• Improved vision within a few days after the
procedure.
 Lens Materials
Polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA): Plastic that has
been used for many years in artificial lenses.
It is a durable and affordable material, cannot flex and
adjust focus like the natural lens.

Silicone: Silicone is a soft, flexible material that is

resistant to cracking and breaking. Phakic intraocular
lenses (IOLs), which are implanted in front of the
natural lens.

Acrylic: Lightweight, clear material that is similar in

properties to PMMA. It is often used in foldable IOLs,
which can be inserted through a smaller incision.
• Hydrophobic acrylic: Acrylic material that
has a special surface treatment that helps
to reduce glare and halos around lights.

• Hydrophilic acrylic: Acrylic material that is

designed to be more compatible with the
natural fluid in the eye, reducing the risk
of vision-threatening complications.
THANK YOU