THE NATURE OF

LANGUAGE

Jay-Ann G. Belocura, LPT

Instructor
INTRODUCTION
The nature of language is fundamentally about how humans communicate thoughts,
ideas, and emotions through a system of signs, sounds, and symbols. It is a unique,
complex, and dynamic tool that enables individuals to convey meaning and engage in
social interaction.

Language is symbolic, meaning that words and signs have no inherent connection to
what they represent but are understood through shared conventions. It is also structured,
with rules governing sound (phonology), word formation (morphology), sentence structure
(syntax), and meaning (semantics and pragmatics).

Additionally, language is adaptive and ever-evolving, influenced by culture, society, and

technology, and allows for creativity, abstraction, and displacement (talking about things
beyond the immediate context). In short, language is a core aspect of human experience,
facilitating communication and shaping how we think, perceive, and relate to the world.
Definition of Language

1. Noam Chomsky (Linguist)

"Language is a set of (finite or infinite) sentences, each of which is grammatically
correct."

2. Ferdinand de Saussure (Linguist)

"Language is a system of signs that express ideas."

3. Edward Sapir (Anthropologist)

"Language is a purely human and non-instinctive method of communicating ideas,
emotions, and desires by means of voluntarily produced symbols."

4. B.F. Skinner (Psychologist)

"Language is a verbal behavior."
5. Lev Vygotsky (Psychologist)
"Language is a tool of thought and a means of social interaction."

6. Wilhelm von Humboldt (Philosopher and Linguist)

"Language is the external manifestation of internal thought."

7. Charles Hockett (Linguist)

"Language is a system of communication based on the use of symbols that are
organized according to certain rules."

8. Roman Jakobson (Linguist)

"Language is a system of communication that functions as a tool for conveying
messages from one person to another."

9. Michael Halliday (Linguist)

"Language is a social semiotic system."
10. John Searle (Philosopher of Language)
"Language is a system of communication that is composed of symbols that represent
concepts."

Purpose of Language

Facilitate communication, express thoughts, convey emotions, share knowledge.

Importance

Central to human society, culture, and cognition.

THE EVOLUTION OF LANGUAGE
Historical Development

1. Pre-Linguistic Communication (Before 100,000 BCE)

• Early hominids: Before the development of fully structured language, early

humans and their ancestors communicated using gestures, facial expressions, and
vocalizations. This form of communication was likely rudimentary but allowed for
the expression of basic needs and emotions.
• Homo habilis and Homo erectus: These early human species likely had limited
vocalizations that served as precursors to more complex speech.
THE EVOLUTION OF LANGUAGE
2. The Emergence of Language (100,000–50,000 BCE)

• Anatomical changes: The development of language was influenced by anatomical

changes, particularly in the vocal tract and brain. Homo sapiens (modern humans)
developed the ability to produce a wider range of sounds due to changes in the
shape of the larynx and the brain's language centers.
• Cognitive developments: This period likely saw the emergence of basic symbolic
thinking, enabling humans to associate sounds with specific meanings and ideas.
It’s theorized that early humans began to use simple words or sounds to represent
objects, actions, or concepts.
THE EVOLUTION OF LANGUAGE
3. Proto-Languages (50,000–10,000 BCE)

• Proto-languages: As human societies grew more complex, so did their languages.

It’s believed that early humans spoke in proto-languages—rudimentary languages
with simple vocabulary and grammar that laid the foundation for more advanced
languages.
• Development of syntax: Over time, these proto-languages evolved to include
more sophisticated syntactic structures. The first forms of grammar likely appeared
during this period, allowing for more complex sentences and meanings.
THE EVOLUTION OF LANGUAGE
4. The Rise of Writing (3,500 BCE)

• Sumerians and Egyptians: The development of writing was a major milestone in

the history of language. The earliest known forms of writing appeared around 3,500
BCE in Sumer (Mesopotamia) and Egypt. These early systems were logographic,
meaning each symbol represented a word or concept.
• Cuneiform and hieroglyphs: The Sumerians developed cuneiform, a system of
wedge-shaped marks pressed into clay tablets, while the Egyptians developed
hieroglyphs, a system of pictorial symbols.
THE EVOLUTION OF LANGUAGE
5. The Spread of Indo-European Languages (2,000 BCE – 500 BCE)

• Indo-European language family: One of the most significant developments in

the history of language was the spread of Indo-European languages. These
languages originated from a common ancestral language known as Proto-Indo-
European (PIE), and over time, they spread across Europe and parts of Asia,
evolving into the many languages we see today, such as English, Spanish, Hindi,
and Russian.
• Language divergence: As the Indo-European-speaking populations migrated,
their languages evolved and diverged, giving rise to different branches, such as the
Romance, Germanic, Slavic, and Indic languages.
THE EVOLUTION OF LANGUAGE
6. Classical and Medieval Languages (500 BCE – 1500 CE)

• Classical languages: During this period, languages like Latin, Ancient Greek,
Sanskrit, and Classical Chinese became prominent. These languages served as the
literary and intellectual vehicles for vast empires, such as the Roman and Greek
Empires, and played a key role in shaping Western and Eastern philosophical,
religious, and scientific traditions.
• Medieval developments: During the medieval period, languages began to further
evolve and localize. Latin evolved into the Romance languages (Spanish, French,
Italian, etc.), while Old English, Old French, and other languages began to emerge
and change.
THE EVOLUTION OF LANGUAGE
7. The Evolution of Vernaculars and Modern Languages (1500 CE – Present)

• Renaissance and the rise of vernaculars: With the Renaissance came a renewed interest in the study
of classical languages, but also a movement toward the use of vernacular languages (the local languages
spoken by the people) in literature, science, and politics. This helped establish modern languages in their
written forms, with authors like Dante Alighieri (Italian) and Geoffrey Chaucer (English) contributing
significantly to this development.
• Printing press: The invention of the printing press by Johannes Gutenberg in the 15th century had a
profound effect on language development. It made books more widely available and standardized written
forms of languages, which contributed to the spread of literacy and the stabilization of modern
languages.
• Colonization and globalization: The spread of European empires during the Age of Exploration (16th
to 18th centuries) spread European languages (e.g., English, Spanish, French, Portuguese) across the
world. As a result, many languages have evolved or been influenced by these colonial languages, and
new global languages have emerged, such as English becoming a lingua franca in international
communication.
THE EVOLUTION OF LANGUAGE
8. Contemporary Language (19th Century – Present)

• Globalization and technology: In the 20th and 21st centuries, globalization,

migration, and the rise of the internet and digital communication have had a
significant impact on language. New forms of language have emerged, such as
internet slang, emojis, and hybrid languages. There is also the influence of global
languages like English, which has become widely used in business, science, and
technology.
• Language preservation and revitalization: At the same time, many minority
languages face extinction. Efforts to preserve and revitalize endangered languages
have gained importance, as linguists and communities work to maintain linguistic
diversity in the face of globalization.
 KEY CHARACTERISTICS OF
Arbitrariness LANGUAGE
Language arbitrariness refers to the idea that there is no inherent connection between
the sounds of words and their meanings. In other words, the relationship between a
word's form (its pronunciation or written representation) and its meaning is based
purely on social convention and agreement among speakers of a language, not on any
natural or logical link.

For example, the word "dog" in English has no inherent connection to the animal it
represents; it's simply a label that English speakers have agreed upon. In other
languages, the same animal is referred to by different words, such as "chien" in French
or "perro" in Spanish. These differences highlight that the link between sound and
meaning is arbitrary and can vary across languages and cultures.
 KEY CHARACTERISTICS OF
LANGUAGE
This concept was first explored by linguist Ferdinand de Saussure, who argued that
linguistic signs (words) consist of two parts: the "signifier" (the word or sound) and the
"signified" (the concept or meaning). The connection between the two is arbitrary, and
it is only through social usage that these signs come to represent particular concepts.
 KEY CHARACTERISTICS OF
LANGUAGE
Duality of Patterning

Language duality of patterning refers to the property of human languages where

meaningful communication is built upon two levels of structure:

• The first level involves phonemes—the smallest units of sound that do not carry
meaning on their own (e.g., /p/, /b/, /a/). These sounds are combined to form:

• The second level, which involves morphemes—the smallest units of meaning (e.g.,
"cat," "run," or "un-" as a prefix).
 KEY CHARACTERISTICS OF
LANGUAGE
This dual structure allows for a limited number of sounds (phonemes) to be combined
in countless ways to create an infinite number of words, phrases, and sentences, each
with distinct meanings. It is a key feature that enables the flexibility and complexity of
language.

For example, the sounds /c/, /a/, and /t/ can combine to form "cat" (a specific meaning),
or rearranged into "act" (a different meaning), demonstrating how small sound units
are patterned to produce meaningful communication.
 KEY CHARACTERISTICS OF
Creativity LANGUAGE
Language creativity refers to the ability of speakers to produce and understand an
infinite number of novel sentences and expressions, even those they have never
encountered before. This is possible due to the flexible nature of language's underlying
rules, such as grammar and syntax, which allow for the creation of new combinations
of words and ideas.

For example, a speaker can form new sentences like "The purple elephant danced
through the kitchen," even though they may never have heard this exact sentence
before. The capacity to create new meanings, express complex ideas, and adapt
language to different contexts is a hallmark of human linguistic ability.
 KEY CHARACTERISTICS OF
Displacement LANGUAGE

Language displacement refers to the ability of language to communicate about things

that are not present in the immediate environment—things that are distant in time,
space, or even abstract concepts. Unlike animal communication, which is typically tied
to the here and now, human language allows speakers to talk about events in the past,
future, or even hypothetical situations.

For example, you can talk about "yesterday's weather" or "what will happen tomorrow,"
even though those events are not happening at the moment. You can also discuss
abstract concepts like justice, freedom, or emotions. Displacement is a key feature that
enables humans to convey complex ideas and engage in discussions that go beyond
the immediate physical context.
COMPONENTS OF LANGUAGE
Phonology

Phonology is the branch of linguistics that deals with the study of sounds in language,
specifically how they function, pattern, and are organized within a particular language.
It focuses on the abstract, mental representation of sounds, known as phonemes, and
how they are used to distinguish meaning.

Phonology differs from phonetics, which is concerned with the physical properties of
speech sounds (such as their articulation and acoustic features). While phonetics looks
at the actual sounds we produce, phonology looks at how those sounds function within
the system of a language.
COMPONENTS OF LANGUAGE
Key concepts in phonology include:

1.Phonemes: The smallest units of sound that can distinguish meaning (e.g.,
changing the sound /p/ to /b/ in "pat" vs. "bat").
2.Allophones: Variations of a single phoneme that do not change the meaning of a
word (e.g., the [p] sound in "pat" vs. the [pʰ] sound in "pin").
3.Syllable structure: How sounds are organized within syllables (onsets, nuclei,
codas).
4.Phonological rules: Patterns governing how sounds interact with each other, such as
assimilation (when sounds become more similar to neighboring sounds) or elision
(when sounds are omitted).

Phonology helps explain how sounds are systematically used to convey meaning in
languages and why different languages have different sound systems.
COMPONENTS OF LANGUAGE
Morphology

Morphology is the branch of linguistics that studies the structure and formation of
words. It focuses on how words are built from smaller units of meaning called
morphemes. Morphemes are the smallest units of meaning in a language and can be
individual words or parts of words, such as prefixes, roots, and suffixes.

There are two main types of morphemes:

1.Free morphemes: These can stand alone as words and carry meaning by
themselves (e.g., "book," "run," "happy").
2.Bound morphemes: These cannot stand alone and must attach to other morphemes
to convey meaning (e.g., the prefix "un-" in "undo" or the suffix "-ed" in "walked").
COMPONENTS OF LANGUAGE
Morphology examines how morphemes combine to form words and how words are
structured. There are two primary processes in morphology:

1.Derivation: Creating new words by adding prefixes, suffixes, or other morphemes to

existing ones (e.g., "happiness" from "happy").
2.Inflection: Modifying words to indicate grammatical features such as tense, number,
gender, or case (e.g., "cats" from "cat" to show plural).

Morphology helps us understand how words are formed, how they change, and how
they interact to create meaning in language.
COMPONENTS OF LANGUAGE
Syntax

Syntax is the branch of linguistics that studies the rules and principles governing the
structure of sentences in a language. It focuses on how words and phrases are
arranged to convey meaning and how different elements in a sentence relate to each
other.

At its core, syntax looks at how word order, phrase structure, and grammatical
relationships work together to form well-structured sentences. For example, in English,
the basic sentence structure is Subject-Verb-Object (SVO), as in "The cat (subject)
chased (verb) the mouse (object)."
COMPONENTS OF LANGUAGE
Some key concepts in syntax include:
1.Sentence structure: The organization of words and phrases into larger structures
(e.g., noun phrases, verb phrases).
2.Phrase structure rules: These define how different types of words (nouns, verbs,
adjectives, etc.) combine to form phrases (e.g., noun phrases or verb phrases).
3.Word order: The arrangement of words in a sentence to convey meaning (e.g.,
English typically uses SVO order, while Japanese often uses Subject-Object-Verb
(SOV) order).
4.Grammatical relations: These involve roles that words play in a sentence (e.g.,
subject, object, complement, etc.) and how they interact to make sense.
5.Movement and transformations: In more complex syntactic theories (like
generative grammar), syntax also studies how words or phrases can be rearranged
or transformed within sentences (e.g., turning "The cat chased the mouse" into a
question: "Did the cat chase the mouse?").
COMPONENTS OF LANGUAGE
Semantics

Semantics is the branch of linguistics that studies meaning in language. It focuses on

how words, phrases, sentences, and texts convey meaning and how these meanings
are interpreted by speakers of a language.

Semantics deals with both lexical semantics (the meaning of individual words) and
compositional semantics (how meanings combine in larger structures like phrases and
sentences). Some of the key concepts in semantics include:

1.Word meaning: How individual words convey specific concepts or ideas (e.g., the
word "dog" refers to a specific type of animal).
COMPONENTS OF LANGUAGE
2. Sense and reference:

• Sense refers to the internal meaning or concept behind a word (e.g., "dog" might
evoke the idea of a domesticated animal with four legs, a tail, etc.).
• Reference refers to the actual real-world entity a word refers to (e.g., the word
"dog" could refer to any particular dog in the world).

3. Ambiguity: Some words or sentences can have multiple meanings depending on

context. For example, the word "bank" can refer to a financial institution or the side of
a river.
COMPONENTS OF LANGUAGE
4. Pragmatics: While semantics deals with literal meaning, pragmatics looks at how
context affects meaning, like how tone, social cues, or situation influence
interpretation.

5. Truth conditions: This refers to the conditions under which a statement is considered
true or false. For example, the sentence "The cat is on the mat" is true if, in the real
world, the cat is indeed on the mat.
COMPONENTS OF LANGUAGE
Pragmatics

Pragmatics is the branch of linguistics that studies how context influences the
interpretation of meaning in language. While semantics focuses on the literal meaning
of words and sentences, pragmatics examines how speakers use language in real-world
situations, taking into account factors like social context, speaker intentions, and the
relationship between speakers.

Key concepts in pragmatics include:

1.Context: The circumstances or environment in which language is used—this can
include the physical setting, the relationship between speakers, and their shared
knowledge. Context helps clarify ambiguous or indirect meanings. For example, the
phrase "Can you pass the salt?" might be understood as a request, not just a
question about one's ability to pass the salt.
COMPONENTS OF LANGUAGE
2. Speech acts: Pragmatics looks at how people use language to perform actions, such
as requesting, apologizing, promising, or advising. These actions are known as speech
acts, and understanding them requires more than just understanding the words. For
example, the sentence "I now pronounce you husband and wife" is a speech act that
performs the action of marriage.

3. Implicature: This refers to the idea that speakers often communicate more than what
is explicitly said, relying on the listener to infer additional meaning. For example, if
someone says, "It's cold in here, isn't it?" they might be implying a request to close a
window, even though they don't directly say it.
COMPONENTS OF LANGUAGE
4. Deixis: Words like "this," "that," "here," "there," "I," and "you" depend on the context
of the conversation to determine their meaning. These words are called deictic
expressions, and their interpretation relies on the speaker’s point of view or the
situation.

5. Politeness: Pragmatics also studies how speakers manage social relationships

through language, including how they use politeness strategies. For example, someone
might say "Could you please close the door?" instead of just "Close the door" to be
more polite.
THEORIES OF LANGUAGE
ACQUISITION
Nativist Theory (Chomsky)
Language is innate; humans are born with a universal grammar.

Learning Theory (Skinner)

Language is learned through imitation, reinforcement, and conditioning.

Interactionist Theory
Language acquisition is a combination of innate abilities and social
interaction.
LANGUAGE AND THOUGHT
Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis
Language shapes the way we think (e.g., different languages have
different concepts or distinctions).

Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis
The structure of a language affects its speakers' worldview.

Cognition and Language

Language and thought are interconnected but can also develop
independently.
LANGUAGE AND CULTURE
Cultural Influence on Language
Language reflects cultural values, norms, and identity.

Language Variations
Dialects, slang, and jargon.

Language as a Cultural Tool

It shapes and is shaped by social interactions, traditions, and worldviews.
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