CELL BIOCHEMISTRY

Aghogho Oyibo (E-Tutor)

Department of Biochemistry
College of Medicine,
University of Ibadan, Ibadan Nigeria

1
04/02/2025
 MODULE 5
CHEMICAL
COMPOSITION
OF CELLS
04/02/2025 2
 TOPIC 9
CARBOHYDRAT
E

04/02/2025 3
 OUTLINES
 Introduction

 Structure

 Types of carbohydrate

 Functions of carbohydrate

 Conclusion
 INTRODUCTION
• Cells, the basic units of life, are composed of various chemical substances
that contribute to their structure, function, and survival.
• The component of cell includes;
Water
Inorganic ions: sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, chloride ions e.t.c
Carbohydrate
Proteins
Lipids
Nucleic acids
 CARBOHYDRATES
Carbohydrate : compounds contains H, C & O
with the comp : (CH2O)n (Hydrate of carbon)
Carbohydrates : Consist of sugar (saccharum)
Sugars : compound that contains alcohol &
carbonyl functional group
Carbonyl func.group : >C=o
Adehyde  aldose
Ketone  ketose
Example
s:
 Classification

Carbohydrate

Mono Oligo Poly

Glyconoconjugates
saccharide saccharide saccharide

Glucose, fructose disaccharides cellulose, chitin, glycoproteins and

Ribose (aldopentose) Glycoproteins starch, glycogen, proteoglycans
Deoxy ribose (bacterial cell walls glucoaminoglycans
 Monosaccharides Properties&
classification
• Colorless, crystalline solids
• Soluble in water but insoluble in nonpolar solvents
• One of the carbon atoms is double-bonded to an
oxygen atom to form a carbonyl group; each of the
other carbon atoms has a hydroxyl group.
• Carbohydrates with an aldehyde (-CHO) functional
group are called aldoses e.g. glyceraldehyde
(CH2OH-CHOH-CHO)
Those with a keto group (-C=O) are ketoses
e.g.dihydroxyacetone (CH2OH-C=O-CH2OH)
• Classified according to the number of carbon
atoms they contain
Monosacharides : Exp. aldoses & ketoses

Aldotetrose Aldopentoses Aldohexose

Aldotriose

Ketotriose Ketotetrose Ketopentose Ketohexose

MONOSACCHARIDES STEREOISOMERS
• Isomers: same chemical formulas, different structures
• Conformation : the spatial arrangement of substituent groups
• chiral centers: asymmetric carbons, i.e carbon atom with four different
substituents
• Enantiomers : mirror images Stereoisomers
• The simplest aldose, glyceraldehyde, contains one chiral center (the middle
carbon atom) and has two different optical isomers, or enantiomers

the projection in which the carbohydrate backbone is

drawn vertically with the carbonyl shown on the top.
D- and L- enantiomers
 Cyclic structure of monosacharides
in aqueous solution, monosaccharides with five or more carbon atoms in the backbone occur
predominantly as cyclic (ring) structures in which the carbonyl group has formed a covalent
bond with the oxygen of a hydroxyl group along the chain.

The new chiral center in cyclic (c1) is called anomeric carbon

Pyranoses& Furanoses
Pyranoses: six-membered ring compounds ( resemble pyran )
Furanoses : fivemembered rings, (resemble furan)

The structure systematic names glucose & fructose become

HAWORTH STRUCTURES
An English chemist W.N. Haworth
gave a more accurate picture of
carbohydrate structure. (Ref. P.205
of textbook)
FISHER AND HAWORTH FORMS OF SUGAR
SUMMARY OF SUGAR STRUCTURES

• ISOMERS- compounds that have the same chemical formula e.g. fructose,
glucose, mannose, and galactose are isomers of each other having formula
C6H12O6.
• EPIMERS- refer to sugars whose configuration differ around one specific
carbon atom e.g. glucose and galactose are C-4 epimers and glucose and
mannose are C-2 epimers.
• ENANTIOMERS- a special type of isomerism found in pairs of structures that
are mirror images of each other. The mirror images are termed as
enantiomers and the two members are designated as D- and L- sugar. The
vast majority of sugars in humans are D-sugars.
• CYCLIZATION OF SUGARS- most monosaccharides with 5 or more carbon
atoms are predominately found in a ring form, where the aldehyde or
ketone group has reacted with an alcoholic group on the same sugar group
to form a hemiacetal or hemiketal ring.
Pyranose ring- if the ring has 5 carbons and 1 oxygen.
Furanose ring- if the ring is 5-membered (4 carbons and 1 oxygen
 IMPORTANT REACTIONS IN MONOSACCHARIDES

Monosaccharides undergo the following reactions :

1. Mutarotation
2. Oxidation
3. Reduction
4. Isomerization
5. Esterification
6. Glycoside formation
IMPORTANT REACTIONS IN MONOSACCHARIDES
Details

1. Mutarotation –
alfa and beta forms of sugars are readily interconverted when dissolved in water
2 Oxidation and reduction
in presence of oxidising agents, metal ions (Cu2+) and enzymes, monosacchs undergo several
oxidation reactions e.g. Oxidation of aldehyde group (R-CHO) yields aldonic acid; of terminal
CH2OH (alcohol) yields uronic acid; and of both the aldehyde and CH2OH gives aldaric acid. The
carbonyl groups in both aldonic and uronic can react with an OH group in the sam
3 REDUCTION
reduction of the aldehyde and ketone groups of monosacchs yield sugar alcohols (alditols)
Sugar alcohols e.g.sorbitol, are used commercially in processing foods and pharmaceuticals. e
molecule to form a cyclic ester lactone.
 IMPORTANT REACTIONS (Cont)

4. ISOMERIZATION
Monosaccharides undergo several types of isomerization e.g. D-glucose in alkaline solution for several
hours containn D-mannose and D-fructose. The conversion of glucose to mannose is termed
epimerization. .

5 ESTERIFICATION
Free OH groups of carbohydrates react with acids to form esters. This reaction an change the physical and
chemical propteries of sugar.

6. GLYCOSIDE FORMATION-
Hemiacetals and hemiketals reaction with alcohols to form the corressponding aceta or ketal (p.210 of
Text).On the contrary when a cyclic hemiacetal or hemiketal form of monosaccharide reacts with alcohol,
the new linkage is called glycosidic linkage and the compound glycoside.
Alfa & beta GLYCOCIDIC BOND
REDUCING SUGARS

• All monosaccharides are reducing sugars.

• They can be oxidised by weak oxidising agent such as Benedict’s
reagent
• Benedict's reagent is a solution of copper sulfate, sodium hydroxide,
and tartaric acid.
Aqueous glucose is mixed with Benedict's reagent and heated. The reaction reduces the blue
copper (II) ion to form a brick red precipitate of copper (I) oxide. Because of this, glucose is
classified as a reducing sugar.
IMPORTANT MONOSACCHARIDES
• GLUCOSE
• FRUCTOSE
• GALACTOSE

D-Glucose:
 D-glucose (dextrose) is the primary fuel in living cells especially in
brain cells that have few or no mitochondria.

 Cells such as eyeballs have limited oxygen supply and use large
amount of glucose to generate energy

 Dietary sources include plant starch, and the disaccharides

lactose, maltose, and sucrose
 Important monosaccharides. Cont

• FRUCTOSE
• D-fructose (levulose) is often referred as fruit sugar and is found in some
vegetables and honey
• This molecule is an important member of ketose member of sugars
• It is twice as sweet as sucrose (per gram basis) and is used as sweeting agent
in processed food products
• It is present in large amounts in male reproductive tract and is synthesised in
the seminal vesicles.
Important monosaccharides.
Cont....
• GALACTOSE
• is necessary to synthesize a variety of biomolecules
(lactose-in mammalary glands, glycolipids, certain
phospholipids, proteoglycans, and glycoproteins)
• Galactose and glucose are epimers at carbon 4 and
interconversion is catalysed by enzyme epimerase.
• Medical problems – galactosemia (genetic disorder) where
enzyme to metabolize galactose is missing; accumulation of
galactose in the body can cause liver damage, cataracts,
and severe mental retardation
MONOSACCHARIDE DERVATIVES
• URONIC ACIDS – formed when terminal CH2OH group
of a mono sugar is oxidised
• Important acids in animals – D-glucuronic acid and its
epimer L-iduronic acid
• In liver cells glucuronic acid combines with steroids, certain
drugs, and bilirubin to improve water solubility thereby
helping the removal of waste products from the body
• These acids are abundant in the connective tissue
carbohydrate components.
Mono sugar derivatives
• AMINO SUGARS –
• Sugars in which a hydroxyl group (common on carbon 2) is
replaced by an amino group e.g. D-glucosamine and D-
galactosamine
• common constituents of complex carbohydrate molecule
found attached to cellular proteins and lipids
• Amino acids are often acetylated e.g. N-acetyl-
glucosamine.
Mono sugar derivatives
• DEOXYSUGARS
• monosaccharides in which an - H has replaced an – OH
group
• Important sugars: L-fucose (formed from D-mannose by
reduction reactions) and 2-deoxy-D-ribose
• L-fucose – found among carbohydrate components of
glycoproteins, such as those of the ABO blood group
determinates on the surface of red blood cells
• 2-deoxyribose is the pentose sugar component of DNA.
GLYCOSIDES
• Monosaccharides can be linked by glycosidic bonds (joining of
2 hydroxyl groups of sugars by splitting out water molecule) to
create larger structures.
• Disaccharides contain 2 monosaccharides e.g. lactose
(galactose+glucose); maltose (glucose+glucose);
sucrose (glucose+fructose)
• Oligosaccharides – 3 to 12 monosaccharides units e.g.
glycoproteins
• Polysaccharides – more than 12 monosaccharides units e.g.
glycogen (homopolysaccharide) having hundreds of sugar
units; glycosaminoglycans (heteropolysaccharides) containing a
number of different monosaccharides species.
 DISACCHARIDES
AND
OLIGOSACCHARIDES
DISACCHARIDES AND
OLIGOSACCHARIDES
• Configurations: alfa or beta ( 1,4, glycosidic bonds or
linkages; other linkages 1,1; 1,2; 1,3; 1,6)
• Digestion aided by enzymes. Defficiency of any one
enzyme causes unpleasant symptoms (fermentation)
in colon produces gas [bloating of cramps].
• Most common defficiency, an ancestoral disorder,
lactose intolerance caused by reduced synthesis of
lactase
 Important sugars of Disaccharides

• LACTOSE
(milk sugar) disaccharide found in milk; composed of one molecule
of galactose and glucose linked through beta(1,4) glycosidic
linkage; because of the hemiacetal group of the glucose
component, lactose is a reducing sugar
MALTOSE ( malt sugar)
An intermediate product of starch hydrolysis; it is a disaccharide with an alfa(1,4) glycosidic linkage
between two D-glucose molecules; in solution the free anomeric carbon undergoes mutarotation
resulting in an equilibrium mixture of alfa and beta – maltoses; it does not occur freely in nature
• SUCROSE
common table sugar: cane sugar or beet sugar produced in the
leaves and stems of plants; it is a disaccharide containing both
alfa-glucose and beta-fructose residues linked by
alfa,beta(1,2)glycosidic bond.
• CELLOBIOSE
degradation product of cellulose containing two molecules of glucose
linked by a beta (1,4) glycosidic bond; it does not occur freely in
nature
OLIGOSACCHARIDE SUGARS

• Oligosaccharides are small polymers often found

attached to polypeptides in glycoproteins and some
glycolipids.
• They are attached to membrane and secretory
proteins found in endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi
complex of various cells
• Two classes: N-linked and O-linked
POLYSACCHARIDES
Introduction to Polysaccharides

• Composed of large number of monosaccharide units

connected by glycosidic linkages
• Classified on the basis of their main monosaccharide
components and the sequences and linkages between them,
as well as the anomeric configuration of linkages, the ring size
(furanose or pyranose), the absolute configuration (D- or L-)
and any other substituents present.
(http://www.lsbu.ac.uk/water/hypol.html)
• Polysaccharides are more hydrophobic if they have a greater
number of internal hydrogen bonds, and as their
hydrophobicity increases there is less direct interaction with
water
• Divided into homopolysaccharides (e.g.Starch, glycogen,
cellulose, and chitin) & heteropolysaccharides
(glycoaminoglycans or GAGs, murein).
4.2. Classification of Polisacharides
HOMOSACCHARIDES

• Found in abundance in nature

• Important examples: starch, glycogen, cellulose, and chitin
• Starch, glycogen, and cellulose all yield D-glucose when they are
hydrolyzed
• Cellulose - primary component of plant cells
• Chitin – principal structural component of exoskeletons of arthropods
and cell walls of many fungi; yield glucose derivative N-acetyl
glucosamine when it is hydrolyzed.
STARCH (Homosaccharide)
• A naturally abundant nutrient carbohydrate, (C6H10O5)n, found chiefly in the
seeds, fruits, tubers, roots, and stem pith of plants, notably in corn,
potatoes, wheat, and rice, and varying widely in appearance according to
source but commonly prepared as a white amorphous tasteless powder.
• Any of various substances, such as natural starch, used to stiffen cloth, as in
laundering.
• Two polysaccharides occur together in starch: amylose and amylopectin
• Amylose – unbranched chains of D-glucose residues linked with
alfa(1,4,)glycosidic bonds
• Amylopectin – a branched polymer containing both alfa(1,4,) and alfa(1,6)
glcosidic linkages; the alfa(1,6) branch points may occur every 20-25
glucose residues to prevent helix formation
• Starch digestion begins in the mouth; alfa-amylase in the saliva initiates
hydrolysis of the gycosidic linkages
GLYCOGEN (Homosaccharide)
• Glycogen is the storage form of glucose in animals and humans which is
analogous to the starch in plants.
• Glycogen is synthesized and stored mainly in the liver and the muscles.
• Structurally, glycogen is very similar to amylopectin with alpha acetal
linkages, however, it has even more branching and more glucose units are
present than in amylopectin.
• Various samples of glycogen have been measured at 1,700-600,000 units
of glucose.
• The structure of glycogen consists of long polymer chains of glucose units
connected by an alpha acetal linkage.
• The branches are formed by linking C # 1 to a C # 6 through an acetal
linkages.
• In glycogen, the branches occur at intervals of 8-10 glucose units, while in
amylopectin the branches are separated by 12-20 glucose units.
STRUCTURE OF GLYCOGEN
CELLULOSE (Homosaccharide)
• Cellulose is found in plants as microfibrils (2-20 nm diameter and 100 - 40 000 nm long). These
form the structurally strong framework in the cell walls.
• Cellulose is mostly prepared from wood pulp
• Cellulose is a linear polymer of β-(1 4)-D-glucopyranose units in 4C1 conformation. The fully
equatorial conformation of β-linked glucopyranose residues stabilizes the chair structure,
minimizing its flexibility
• Cellulose has many uses as an anticake agent, emulsifier, stabilizer, dispersing agent, thickener,
and gelling agent but these are generally subsidiary to its most important use of holding on to
water.
• Water cannot penetrate crystalline cellulose but dry amorphous cellulose absorbs water
becoming soft and flexible.
• Purified cellulose is used as the base material for a number of water-soluble derivatives e.g.
Methyl cellulose, carbomethycellulose
CELLULOSE
CHITIN (Homosaccharide)
• Chitin is a polymer that can be found in anything from the shells
of beetlesto webs of spiders. It is present all around us, in plant
and animal creatures.
• It is sometimes considered to be a spinoff of cellulose, because
the two are very molecularly similar.
• Cellulose contains a hydroxy group, and chitin contains
acetamide.
• Chitin is unusual because it is a "natural polymer," or a
combination of elements that exists naturally on earth.
• Usually, polymers are man-made. Crabs, beetles, worms and
mushrooms contain large amount of chitin.
• Chitin is a very firm material, and it help protect an insect
against harm and pressure
Structure of the chitin molecule, showing two of the N-
acetylglucosamine units that repeat to form long chains in beta-
1,4 linkage.
CHITOSAN
• A spinoff of chitin that has been discovered by the market is
chitosan. This is a man-made molecule that is often used to
dye shirts and jeans in the clothing industry.
• Chitosan can be used within the human body to regulate diet
programs, and researchers are looking into ways in which it can
sure diseases.
• Chitin, the polysaccharide polymer from which chitosan is
derived, is a cellulose-like polymer consisting mainly of
unbranched chains of N-acetyl-D-glucosamine. Deacetylated
chitin, or chitosan, is comprised of chains of D-glucosamine.
When ingested, chitosan can be considered a dietary fiber.
CHEMICAL STRUCTURE OF CHITOSAN
http://www.pdrhealth.com/drug_info/nmdrugprofiles/nutsupdrugs/
chi_0067.shtml
HETEROPOLYSACCHARIDES

• Are high-molecular-weight carbohydrate polymers more than one

kind of monosaccharide
• Important examples include glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) – the
principle components of proteoglycans and murein, a major
component of bacterial cell walls.
GAGs - high-molecular-weight carbohydrate polymers

• Glycosaminoglycans forming the proteoglycans are

the most abundant heteropolysaccharides in the
body. They are long unbranched molecules containing
a repeating disaccharide unit. Usually one sugar is an
uronic acid (either D-glucuronic or L-iduronic) and the
other is either GlcNAc or GalNAc. One or both sugars
contain sulfate groups (the only exception is
hyaluronic acid).
• GAGs are highly negatively charged what is essential
for their function.
 THE SPECIFIC GAGs OF PHYSIOLOGICAL
SIGNIFICANCE

Hyaluronic acid
Occurence : synovial fluid, ECM of loose connective tissue
Hyaluronic acid is unique among the GAGs because it does not
contain any sulfate and is not found covalently attached to proteins. It
forms non-covalently linked complexes with proteoglycans in the
ECM.
Hyaluronic acid polymers are very large (100 - 10,000 kD) and can
displace a large volume of water.
Hyaluronic acid (D-glucuronate + GlcNAc)
Dermatan sulfate (L-iduronate + GlcNAc
sulfate)

Occurence : skin, blood vessels, heart valves

Chondroitin sulfate (D-glucuronate + GalNAc
sulfate)
Occurence : cartilage, bone, heart valves ;
It is the most abundant GAG.
Heparin and heparan sulfate (D-glucuronate sulfate +
N-sulfo-D-glucosamine)

Heparans have less sulfate groups than heparins

Occurence :
Heparin :component of intracellular granules of mast cells lining the arteries of the lungs, liver
and skin Heparan sulfate : basement membranes, component of cell surfaces
Keratan sulfate ( Gal + GlcNAc sulfate)

Occurence : cornea, bone, cartilage ;

• Keratan sulfates are often aggregated with chondroitin sulfates.
MUREIN (Peptidoglycan)

• Peptidoglycan, also known as murein, is a polymer consisting of sugars and

amino acids that forms a mesh-like layer outside the plasma membrane of
eubacteria.

• The sugar component consists of alternating residues of β-(1,4) linked N-

acetylglucosamine and N-acetylmuramic acid residues.

• Attached to the N-acetylmuramic acid is a peptide chain of three to five

amino acids.

• The peptide chain can be cross-linked to the peptide chain of another

strand forming the 3D mesh-like layer.

• Some Archaea have a similar layer of pseudopeptidoglycan.

• Peptidoglycan serves a structural role in the bacterial cell wall,
giving the wall shape and structural strength, as well as
counteracting the osmotic pressure of the cytoplasm.

• Peptidoglycan is also involved in binary fission during bacterial

cell reproduction.

• The peptidoglycan layer is substantially thicker in

Gram-positive bacteria (20 to 80 nm) than in Gram-negative
bacteria (7 to 8 nm), with the attachment of the S-layer.

• Peptidoglycan forms around 90% of the dry weight of Gram-

positive bacteria but only 10% of Gram-negative strains.

• In Gram-positive strains, it is important in attachment roles and

serotyping purposes.
GLYCOCONJUGATES
Intro to glycoconjugates

• They are compounds that result from covalent

linkages of carbohydrate molecules to both proteins
and lipids.
• They have a profound effects on the functions of
individual cells as weell as cell-cell interactions of
multicellular organisms.
• Two classes of carbohydrate-protein conjugate:
glycoproteins and proteoglycans.
• The glycolipids (oligosaccharide-containing lipid
molecules) are found predominately on the outer
surface of plasma membrane.
Glycoproteins
• Glycoprotein carbohydrate chains are highly diverse. They are
formed by glycosylation and classified into two groups:
1. N-linked oligosaccharides
2. O-linked oligosaccharides
• The N-linked oligosaccharides have a minimum of 5 sugar
residues
• N-linked attached to polypeptides by an N-glycosidic bond with
a chain amide group of amino acid and asparagine
• O-linked oligosaccharides are generally short (1-4 sugar
residues)
• O-linked are attached to polypeptides by the side chain
hydroxyl group of amino acids serine or threonine in
polypeptide chains or hydroxyl groups of membrane lipids
Glycosylation
• Glycosylation is the process or result of addition of saccharides
to proteins and lipids
• The process plays an important role in the synthesis of
membrane and secreted proteins
• Majority of proteins synthesized in the rough ER undergo
glycosylation
• It is an enzyme -directed site-specific process.
• Two types of glycosylation exist: N-linked glycosylation to the
amide nitrogen of asparagine side chains and O-linked
glycosylation to the hydroxy oxygen of serine and threonine
side chains.
• Glycosylation may play a role in cell-cell adhesion (a
mechanism employed by cells of the immune system), as well.
GLYCOPROTEIN FUNCTIONS
• Types of glycoproteins: asparagine-linked carbohydrate; mucin-
type cabohydrate
• Examples: glycophorin (membrane protein, source – human
RBC, % carbohydrate - 60); potato lectin (lectin, carbohydrate
binding proteins, source – potato, % carbohydrate – 50)
• Functions: Many glycoproteins have structural functions:
constituent of the cell wall; form connective tissues such as
collagen; found in gastrointestinal mucus secretions; used as
protective agents and lubricants ;found abundantly in the
blood plasma.
• The human blood groups A, B, AB, and O depend on the
oligosaccharide part of the glycoprotein on the surface of
erythrocyte cells. The terminal monosaccharide of the
glycoprotein at the nonreducing end determines blood group.
BLOOD GROUPS
TYPE TERMINAL SUGAR
A N-acetylgalactosamine
B a-D-galactose
AB both the above
O neither of the above
O is the “universal donor”
AB is the “universal
acceptor”
Oligosaccharides are antigeneic
determinants
• Carbohydrates on cell surfaces are immunochemical markers.
• ABO blood group antigens are oligosaccharide components of
glycoproteins and glycolipids on the surfaces of individual cells,
besides blood cells.
• Individuals with type A cells have A antigens on their cell surfaces and
carry anti-B antibodies
• Those with type B cells which bear B antigens, carry anti-A antibodies
• Those with type AB cells, which have both A and B
antigens, carry neither anti-A nor anti-B antibodies
• Type O individuals whose cells bear neither antigen,
carry both anti-A and anti-B antibodies.
• Transfusion of type A blood group into a type B
individual, results in an anti-A antibody- A antigen
reaction.
• This reaction clumps together (agglutinates) the
transfused erythrocytes, resulting in an often fatal
blockage of blood vessels
Functions of glycoproteins (elaborated)
http://www.cs.stedwards.edu/chem/Chemistry/CHEM43/CHEM43/Glycoproteins/
Glycoproteins.HTML

Carbohydrates and proteins by themselves serve in a vast

number of biological functions,linking the two together results
in a macromolecule with an extremely large number of
functions.
• Structural: Glycoproteins are found throughout matrices. They
act as receptors on cell surfaces that bring other cells and
proteins (collagen) together giving strength and support to a
matrix.
• In nerve tissue glycoproteins are abundant in gray matter and
appear to be associated with synaptosomes, axons, and
microsomes.
• Protection: Human lacrimal glands produce a glycoprotein
which protects the corneal epithelium from desiccation and
foreign particles. Human sweat glands secrete glycoproteins
which protect the skin from the other excretory products that
could harm the skin
Functions of glycoproteins (further
elaborated-1)
• Prothrombin, thrombin, and fibrinogen are all glycoproteins
that play an intricate role in the blood clotting mechanism
• In certain bacteria the slime layer that surrounds the
outermost components of cell walls are made up of
glycoproteins of high molecular weight. In addition to forming
these s-layers, glycoproteins also function as bacterial flagella.
These are made up of bundles of glycoproteins protruding
from the cell's surface. Their rotation provides propulsion.
• In plants, glycoproteins have roles in cell wall formation, tissue
differentiation, & embryogenesis.
• Reproduction: Glycoproteins found on the surface of
spermatozoa appear to increase a sperm cell's attraction for
the egg by altering the electrophoretic mobility of the plasma
membrane.
Functions of glycoproteins (further
elaborated-2)
• Adhesion: Glycoproteins serve to adhere cells to cells
and cells to substratum.
• Hormones: There are many glycoproteins that
function as hormones such as human chorionic
gonadotropin (HCG) which is present in human
pregnancy urine. Another example is erythropoietin
which regulates erythrocyte production
• Enzymes: Glycoprotein enzymes are of three types.
These are oxidoreductases, transferases, and
hydrolases.
 Functions of glycoproteins (further
elaborated-3)
• Carriers: Glycoproteins can bind to certain molecules and
serve as vehicles of transport. They can bind to vitamins,
hormones, cations, and other substances.
• Inhibitors: Many glycoproteins in blood plasma have shown
antiproteolytic activity. For example, the glycoprotein a1-
antichymotrypsin inhibits chymotrypsin.
• Immunological: The interaction of blood group substances
with antibodies is determined by the glycoproteins on
erythrocytes. Many immunoglobulins are actually
glycoproteins.
B and T cells contain surface glycoproteins that attract bacteria
to these sites and bind them. In much the same manner,
glycoproteins can direct phagocytosis. Because the HIV virus
recognizes the receptor protein CD4, it binds to helper T cells
which contain it.
FUNCTIONS OF CARBOHYDRATES

• As a major energy source for living

organisms (glucose is a principal energy source in animal and plants)

• As a means of transporting energy ( exp: sucrose in

plant tissues)

• As a structural material ( cellulose in plants, chitin in insects, building

.
blocks of nucleotides)

• As a precursor for other biomolecules (purine,

pyrimide)
SIGNIFICANCE OF CARBOHYDRATES

• Carbohydrates are the most abundant biomolecules

in nature, having a direct link between solar energy
and the chemical bond energy in living organisms.
• Source of rapid energy production
• Structural building blocks of cells
• Components of several metabolic pathways
• Recognition of cellular phenomena, such as cell
recognition and binding (e.g., by other cells,
hormones, and viruses)