Cell Division and the Cell Cycle

Lesson Objectives

• Define and explain the concept of cell division

• Contrast cell division in prokaryotes and
eukaryotes.
• Identify the phases of the eukaryotic cell
cycle.
• Explain how the cell cycle is controlled.
• Define cancer, and relate it to the cell cycle
 Introduction

• You consist of a great many cells, but like all other

organisms, you started life as a single cell.
• How did you develop from a single cell into an
organism with trillions of cells?
• The answer is cell division.
• After cells grow to their maximum size, they divide into
two new cells.
• These new cells are small at first, but they grow quickly
and eventually divide and produce more new cells.
• This process keeps repeating in a continuous cycle.
 Cell Division

• Cell division is the process by which cells replicate in

order to replace cell loss, repair tissue damage and
reproduce the organism.
• Cell division is the process in which one cell, called
the parent cell, divides to form two new cells,
referred to as daughter cells.
• How this happens depends on whether the cell is
prokaryotic or eukaryotic.
• Cell division is simpler in prokaryotes than eukaryotes
because prokaryotic cells themselves are simpler.
 Cell Division

• Prokaryotic cells have a single circular

chromosome, no nucleus, and few other
organelles.
• Eukaryotic cells, have multiple chromosomes
contained within a nucleus and many other
organelles.
• All of these cell parts must be duplicated and
then separated when the cell divides.
 Cell Division in Prokaryotes
• Most prokaryotic cells divide by the process of
binary fission.
• Binary fission can be broken down into a series
of three steps, although it is actually a
continuous process.
• They include;
DNA replication,
chromosome segregation,
and cytokinesis.
• Step 1:
o DNA Replication. Just before the cell divides,
its DNA is copied in a process called DNA
replication.
o This results in two identical chromosomes
instead of just one.
o This step is necessary so that when the cell
divides, each daughter cell will have its own
chromosome.
• Step 2:
Chromosome Segregation. The two
chromosomes segregate, or separate, and
move to opposite ends (known as poles) of
the cell.
• Step 3:
o Cytokinesis; A new plasma membrane starts
growing into the center of the cell, and the
cytoplasm splits apart, forming two daughter
cells. This process is called cytokinesis.
o The two daughter cells that result are
genetically identical to each other and to the
parent cell.
Binary fission
 Cell division in eukaryotes
• Cell division is more complex in eukaryotes
than prokaryotes.
• Before dividing, all the DNA in a eukaryotic
cell’s multiple chromosomes is replicated.
• Its organelles are also duplicated.
• Cells divide in two major steps.
 Two steps
 The first step is mitosis, a multi-phase process in
which the nucleus of the cell divides.
• During mitosis, the nuclear membrane breaks down
and later reforms.
• The chromosomes are also sorted and separated to
ensure that each daughter cell receives a complete
set of chromosomes.
 The second major step is cytokinesis.
• As in prokaryotic cells, during this step the
cytoplasm divides and two daughter cells form.
 The Cell Cycle
• Cell division is a very important process in all living organisms.
• During the division of a cell, DNA replication and cell growth
also take place.
• All these processes, i.e., cell division, DNA replication, and cell
growth, hence, have to take place in a coordinated way to
ensure correct division and formation of progeny cells
containing intact genomes.
• The sequence of events by which a cell duplicates its genome,
synthesizes the other constituents of the cell and eventually
divides into two daughter cells is termed cell cycle.
 The Cell Cycle

• Cell division is one of several stages that a cell

undergo during its lifetime.
• The cell cycle is a repeating series of events that
include growth, DNA synthesis, and cell division.
• The cell cycle in prokaryotes is quite simple: the
cell grows, its DNA replicates, and the cell divides.
• In eukaryotes, the cell cycle is more complicated.
 Phases of Cell Cycle
• A typical eukaryotic cell cycle is illustrated by human
cells in culture.
• These cells divide once in approximately every 24 hours.
• However, this duration of cell cycle can vary from
organism to organism and also from cell type to cell
type.
• Yeast for example, can progress through the cell cycle in
only about 90 minutes.
• Somatic Cells: body cells of an organism that do all the
'daily' functions of the organism
The cell cycle is divided into two basic phases:
1. Interphase
2. M Phase (Mitosis phase)
• The M Phase represents the phase when the
actual cell division or mitosis occurs and the
interphase represents the phase between two
successive M phases.
• It is significant to note that in the 24 hour
average duration of cell cycle of a human cell,
cell division proper lasts for only about an hour.
• The interphase lasts more than 95% of the
duration of cell cycle.
• The M Phase starts with the nuclear division,
corresponding to the separation of daughter
chromosomes (karyokinesis) and usually ends with
division of cytoplasm (cytokinesis).
• The interphase, though called the resting phase, is
the time during which the cell is preparing for
division by undergoing both cell growth and DNA
replication in an orderly manner.
• The interphase is divided into three further phases:
 Eukaryotic Cell Cycle

Namely
• G1 phase (Gap 1)
• S phase (Synthesis)
• G2 phase (Gap 2).
• G1 phase corresponds to the interval between mitosis and
initiation of DNA replication.
• During G1 phase the cell is metabolically active and continuously
grows but does not replicate its DNA.
• S or synthesis phase marks the period during which DNA synthesis
or replication takes place.
• During this time the amount of DNA per cell doubles.
• If the initial amount of DNA is denoted as 2C then it increases to
4C.
• However, there is no increase in the chromosome number; if the
cell had diploid or 2n number of chromosomes at G1 , even after
S phase the number of chromosomes remains the same, i.e., 2n.
• In animal cells, during the S phase, DNA
replication begins in the nucleus, and the
centriole duplicates in the cytoplasm.
• During the G2 phase, proteins are synthesized
in preparation for mitosis while cell growth
continues.
This diagram represents the cell cycle in eukaryotes. The G1, S, and G2 phases make up
interphase (I). The M phase includes mitosis and cytokinesis. After the M phase, two
cells result.
 M PHASE
• This is the most dramatic period of the cell cycle,
involving a major reorganisation of virtually all
components of the cell.
• Since the number of chromosomes in the parent and
progeny cells is the same, it is also called as equational
division.
• Though for convenience mitosis has been divided into
four stages of nuclear division (karyokinesis), it is very
essential to understand that cell division is a progressive
process and very clear-cut lines cannot be drawn
between various stages.
 Chromosomes and Mitosis

• In eukaryotic cells, the nucleus divides before the cell

itself divides.
• The process in which the nucleus divides is called
mitosis.
• Before mitosis occurs, a cell’s DNA is replicated.
• This is necessary so that each daughter cell will have
a complete copy of the genetic material from the
parent cell.
• Chromosomes play vital roles in mitosis.
 Chromosomes

• Chromosomes are coiled structures made of DNA and

proteins.
• Chromosomes are the form of the genetic material of a
cell during cell division.
• During other phases of the cell cycle, DNA is not coiled
into chromosomes. Instead, it exists as a grainy material
called chromatin.
• Note: Centrioles help to arrange the microtubules that
move chromosomes during cell division to ensure each
daughter cell receives the appropriate number of
chromosomes.
 Chromatids and the Centromere

• DNA condenses and coils into the familiar X-

shaped form of a chromosome, only after it has
replicated.
• Since DNA has already replicated, each
chromosome actually consists of two identical
copies.
• The two copies are called sister chromatids.
• They are attached to one another at a region
called the centromere.
 Chromosomes and Genes

• The DNA of a chromosome is encoded with

genetic instructions for making proteins.
• These instructions are organized into units
called genes.
• Most genes contain the instructions for a
single protein.
• There may be hundreds or even thousands of
genes on a single chromosome.
 Human Chromosomes

• Human cells normally have two sets of chromosomes, one

set inherited from each parent.
• There are 23 chromosomes in each set, for a total of 46
chromosomes per cell.
• Each chromosome in one set is matched by a chromosome
of the same type in the other set, so there are actually 23
pairs of chromosomes per cell.
• Each pair consists of chromosomes of the same size and
shape that also contain the same genes.
• The chromosomes in a pair are known as homologous
chromosomes.
Mitosis and Cytokinesis
 MITOSIS
• During mitosis, when the nucleus divides, the two
chromatids that make up each chromosome separate
from each other and move to opposite poles of the
cell.
• Mitosis actually occurs in four phases.
• The phases are called;
prophase,
metaphase,
anaphase, and
telophase.
 Prophase

• The first and longest phase of mitosis is prophase.

• During prophase, chromatin condenses into chro-
mosomes, and the nuclear envelope, or membrane,
breaks down.
• In animal cells, the centrioles near the nucleus begin
to separate and move to opposite poles of the cell.
• As the centrioles move, a spindle starts to form
between them.
• The spindle, consists of fibers made of microtubules.
 Metaphase

• During metaphase, spindle fibers attach to the

centromere of each pair of sister chromatids
• The sister chromatids line up at the equator, or
center, of the cell.
• The spindle fibers ensure that sister chromatids will
separate and go to different daughter cells when the
cell divides.
 Anaphase

• During anaphase, sister chromatids separate and

the centromeres divide.
• The sister chromatids are pulled apart by the
shortening of the spindle fibers. This is like reeling
in a fish by shortening the fishing line.
• One sister chromatid moves to one pole of the cell,
and the other sister chromatid moves to the
opposite pole.
• At the end of anaphase, each pole of the cell has a
complete set of chromosomes.
 Telophase

• During telophase, the chromosomes begin to

uncoil and form chromatin.
• This prepares the genetic material for
directing the metabolic activities of the new
cells.
• The spindle also breaks down, and new
nuclear membranes form.
 Cytokinesis

• Cytokinesis is the final stage of cell division in eukaryotes as well

as prokaryotes.
• During cytokinesis, the cytoplasm splits in two and the cell
divides.
• Cytokinesis occurs somewhat differently in plant and animal cells.
• In animal cells, the plasma membrane of the parent cell pinches
inward along the cell’s equator until two daughter cells form.
• In plant cells, a cell plate forms along the equator of the parent
cell.
• Then, a new plasma membrane and cell wall form along each side
of the cell plate.
 Significance of Mitosis
• Mitosis or the equational division is usually restricted
to the diploid cells only.
• However, in some lower plants and in some social
insects haploid cells also divide by mitosis.
• It is very essential to understand the significance of
this division in the life of an organism.
• Mitosis usually results in the production of diploid
daughter cells with identical genetic complement.
• The growth of multicellular organisms is due to
mitosis.
• A very significant contribution of mitosis is cell
repair.
• The cells of the upper layer of the epidermis,
cells of the lining of the gut, and blood cells
are being constantly replaced.
• Mitotic divisions in the meristematic tissues –
the apical and the lateral cambium, result in a
continuous growth of plants throughout their
life.
 Controlling the Cell Cycle
• The cell cycle is controlled by checkpoints to
ensure that a previous phase is fully
completed before advancing to the next phase

• Feedback from the cell determines whether

the cycle switches to the next stage
• Three principal checkpoints control the cycle
in eukaryotes: G1, G2, and M checkpoints
• G1 checkpoint: this checkpoint makes the decision
about whether the cell should divide and enter S,
some cells never pass this point and are said to be
in G0
• G2 checkpoint: this checkpoint leads to mitosis. Is
cell truly ready for its nuclear material to divide?
• M checkpoint: this checkpoint occurs during
metaphase and triggers the exit process of the M
phase and entry to the G1 phase
 Mitosis and cancer
• What is cancer? Cancer is a disease of abnormal gene
expression.
• Abnormal gene expression results from various types
of mutations within genes and/or chromosomes.
• Mutations are usually somatic, which means they’re
acquired mutations in a diploid cell.
• Inherited mutations in haploid gametes are less
common.
• Both mutation types may give cells a growth advantage
that allows them to proliferate and invade other tissue.
 Cell cycle and cancer
• Loss of control of the cell cycle is usually a critical step in
cancer development.
• Cells become abnormal and processes regulating normal
cell division are disrupted.
• Cancer cells are caught in an unregulated cell cycle.
• Most cancers aren’t a result of a single event or factor.
• A number of factors are required for a normal cell to
evolve into a cancerous cell and these factors include both
environment and heredity.
• There are four main types of genetic change seen in
cancer:
• spontaneous mutagenesis;
• environmentally-induced mutagenesis
(causative agents include chemicals, radiations
and viruses);
• environmentally-induced mutagenesis, but
with genetic predisposition; and
• change due to hereditary factors.