UNIT - 2

LECTUER – 7:
PROPORTIONAL
and
PID CONTROLLERS,
 Classes of Control Actions:
Open loop System Closed loop System
 Open-Loop Control System:
• In an open-loop control system, the control action
from the controller is independent of the process
variable.
• Example
– A central heating boiler controlled only by a timer. The
control action is the switching ON or OFF of the boiler.
– The process variable is the building temperature. This
controller applies heat for a constant time regardless
of the temperature of the building.
 Closed-Loop Control Systems
• In a closed-loop control system, the control action
from the controller is dependent on the desired and
actual process variable.
• Example;
– A central boiler utilizes a thermostat to monitor the
building temperature, and feed back a signal to ensure the
controller output maintains the building temperature to
that set on the thermostat.
– A closed loop controller has a feedback loop which
ensures the controller exerts a control action to control a
process variable at the same value as the set-point.
– For this reason, closed-loop controllers are also called
feedback controllers.
 Feedback Control Systems
• In the case of linear feedback systems, a control
loop including sensors, control algorithms, and
actuators is arranged in an attempt to regulate a
variable at a setpoint (SP).
• Example”
– An everyday example is the cruise control on a road
vehicle; where external influences such as gradients
would cause speed changes, and the driver has the
ability to alter the desired set speed.
– The PID algorithm in the controller restores the actual
speed to the desired speed in the optimum way, without
delay or overshoot, by controlling the power output of
the vehicle's engine.
• Control systems that include some sensing of the
results they are trying to achieve are making use
of feedback and can adapt to varying
circumstances to some extent.
• Open-loop control systems do not make use of
feedback, and run only in pre-arranged ways.
 PID control Systems
• A proportional–integral–derivative
controller (PID controller) is a control
loop feedback mechanism used in industrial
control systems and a variety of other
applications requiring continuously modulated
control.
– This control allows a measurement (process variable)
to be controlled at a desired set-point by
continuously adjusting a control output.
– These control parameters act on error or deviation
between set-point and process variable.
• A PID controller continuously calculates an error
value {e(t)} as the difference between a
desired setpoint (SP) and a measured process
variable (PV) and applies a correction based on;
– Proportional (P),
– Integral (I), and
– Derivative (D) terms.
• In practical terms it automatically applies
accurate and responsive correction to a control
function.
 Everyday examples of PIDs;
• The cruise control on a road vehicle;
– Where external influences such as gradients would
cause speed changes, and the driver has the ability to
alter the desired set speed.
• Automatic steering systems for ships;
• Autopilot system in aircrafts and spaceships;
• The PID algorithm restores the actual speed to
the desired speed in the optimum way, without
delay or overshoot, by controlling the power
output of the vehicle's engine.
 Practical applications of PIDs:
• Automatic process control in manufacturing
industry, where it is implemented in;
– Pneumatic controllers and
– Electronic controllers.
• The distinguishing feature of the PID controller is
the ability to use the three control terms of;
– Proportional,
– Integral and
– Derivative influence on the controller output to apply
accurate and optimal control.
Fundamental Operations of a PID system
A block diagram of a PID controller in a feedback
loop showing;
• r(t) - Desired process value or setpoint (SP), and
• y(t) - Measured process value (PV).
Explanation of the PID block diagram;
• A PID controller continuously calculates an error
value {e(t)} as the difference between a
desired setpoint {SP =r(t)} and a
measured process variable {PV =y(t)} and
applies a correction based
on proportional, integral, and derivative terms.
• The controller minimizes the error over time by
adjustment of a control variable {u(t)} such as the
opening of a control valve, to a new value
determined by a weighted sum of the control
terms.
 Term P
• Term P is proportional to the current value of the
SP − PV error e(t).
– If the error is large and positive, the control output will be
proportionately large and positive, taking into account the
gain factor "K".

• Using proportional control alone in a process with

compensation such as temperature control, will
result in an error between the setpoint and the
actual process value, because it requires an error to
generate the proportional response.
• If there is no error, there is no corrective response.
 Term I
• Term I accounts for past values of the SP − PV
error and integrates them over time.

– If there is a residual SP − PV error after the application

of proportional control, the integral term seeks to
eliminate the residual error by adding a control effect
due to the historic cumulative value of the error.
• When the error is eliminated, the integral term
will cease to grow.
– This will result in the proportional effect diminishing as
the error decreases, but this is compensated for by
growing integral effect.
 Term D
• Term D is a best estimate of the future trend of
the SP − PV error, based on its current rate of
change.

• It is sometimes called "anticipatory control", as it

is effectively seeking to reduce the effect of the
SP − PV error by exerting a control influence
generated by the rate of error change.
• The more rapid the change, the greater the
controlling or dampening effect.
 The General Formula

• Where:
– u(t) - PID control variable
– Kp - Proportional gain,
– e(t) - Error value,
– Ki - Integral gain,
– Kd - Differential gain,
– de - Change in error value,
– dt - Change in time
 Selective use of control terms
• Although a PID controller has three control terms,
some applications use only one or two terms to
provide the appropriate control.
• This is achieved by setting the unused parameters
to zero and is called a;
– PI,
– PD,
– P or
– I controller in the absence of the other control
actions.
 Applicability
• The use of the PID algorithm does not guarantee optimal
control of the system or its control stability because of its
limitations.
• Situations may occur where there are excessive delays: the
measurement of the process value is delayed, or the control
action does not apply quickly enough.
– In these cases lead–lag compensation is required to be effective.
• The response of the controller is described in terms of its
responsiveness to an error, the degree to which the
system overshoots a setpoint, and the degree of any system
oscillation.
– But the PID controller is broadly applicable, since it relies only on
the response of the measured process variable, not on knowledge
or a model of the underlying process.
 Loop Tuning
• Loop tuning is the adjustment of its control
parameters to the optimum values of the
desired control response to attain stability.
• The parameters to be adjusted are:
– Proportional – Gain,
– Integral gain – Reset,
– Derivative gain – Rate,
 Using PID in Furnace
• When controlling temperature of an industrial furnace, it is
usually better to control the opening of the fuel valve in
proportion to the current needs of the furnace.
– This helps avoid thermal shocks and applies heat more effectively.
• At low gains, only a small corrective action is applied when
errors are detected.
• The system may be safe and stable, but may be sluggish in
response to changing conditions.
– Errors will remain uncorrected for relatively long periods of time
and the system is over-damped.
• If the proportional gain is increased, such systems become
more responsive and errors are dealt with more quickly.
PID controller performing automatic
control
• The operator sets the PID controller’s set point
(SP) to the desired temperature, and the
controller’s output (CO) sets the position of the
control valve.
• The temperature measurement, {process
variable (PV)}, is then transmitted to the PID
controller, which compares it to the set point and
calculates the difference, or error (E), between
the two signals.
• Based on the error and the controller’s tuning
constants, the controller calculates the
appropriate controller output to set the control
valve at the correct position to keep the
temperature at the set point .
• If the temperature rises above its set point, the
controller will reduce the valve position and vice
versa.
• Each of the controller’s three modes reacts
differently to the error.
– The amount of response produced by each control
mode is adjustable by changing the controller’s tuning
settings.
 Under and Over-Damped Systems
• If in a system, the measured process value (PV)
fluctuates in such a way that it overshoots the set
point (SP) and oscillations take a long time to
settle to a steady value, then the control system is
under-damped.
– In under-damped systems energy is lost and may result
in damage.
• If in a system, the measured process value (PV)
fluctuates but does not overshoots the set point
(SP) and takes a short time to settle to a steady
value, then the control system is over-damped.
 Critically Damped control system
• If in a system, the measured process value
(PV) overshoots the set point (SP) and
oscillations take a very short time to settle to a
steady value, then the control system is
critically damped.
 Cascaded control
• In cascade control two PIDs are arranged with
one PID controlling the setpoint of another to
yield better dynamic performance.
• One PID controller acts as outer loop controller,
which controls the primary physical parameter,
such as fluid level or velocity.
• The other controller acts as inner loop controller,
which reads the output of outer loop controller
as setpoint, usually controlling a more rapid
changing parameter, flow-rate or acceleration.
Cascade control with a flow control loop
inside a level control loop.
• With the single loop control system, the level
sensor provides the feedback which gives the error
signal to the controller and hence initiates the
controlling action on the rate at which fluid enters
the container.
• With the cascade system, the level sensor provides
the feedback to the outer loop controller which
then gives an output which provides the set point
input to the second controller, this being used to
control the rate of flow of the liquid.
• The flow level loop responds quickly to flow
disturbances and so considerably reduces the
level fluctuations that would have occurred with
the single loop control system.
– Such a system can give an improved response to
disturbances.
• The primary controller is usually tuned as a
controller with an integral action, as it is
responsible for achieving the control objective.
• The secondary controller must compensate the
load disturbance as fast as possible, and using the
P controller with a high gain for fast action is
usually sufficient.
Requirements for cascade controllers
• Secondary loop must have influence over the
primary loop;
– For the cascade control system to work, the inner
loop has to influence the outer loop repeatedly.
• Secondary loop must work faster than the
primary loop;
– This ensures that the outer loop has enough time to
compensate for the inner loop’s disturbances.
• Secondary loop must have less severe
disturbances;
– Severe disturbances might hamper the secondary
loop’s corrective efforts to the primary process
 Advantages of Cascade Control
• Reduced overall variability
– Reduces the severity of disturbances and limits variability
that would affect the heating process.
• Effective response to disturbances
– The inner loop is both faster than the outer loop and
closer to the source of the disturbance;
• More conservative outer loop tuning
– It has high amperage power control and enhanced control
options that improve the reliability of the cascade control.
• A more effective heating system
– Cascade controllers optimize the heating processes
through the use of power and temperature controllers.
 Disadvantages Cascade Control
• It requires an additional measurement (usually
flow rate) to work.
• There is an additional controller that has to be
tuned.
• The control strategy is more complex – for
engineers and operators alike.
– These disadvantages have to be weighed up against
the benefits of the expected improvement in control
to decide if cascade control should be implemented.
 Feed-Forward Control Systems
• These are control systems in which the
disturbance is measured, and its effect known,
hence adding a correcting signal to the controller
output signal to compensate for the disturbance.
• The correcting signal is derived by measuring the
disturbance;
• The effect of a disturbance is reduced in feed-
forward control systems.
Working Principle of a Feed-Forward Control
System
• The correcting signal, arriving by blocks H, F,
and P1 exactly cancels the original disturbance,
both in the steady state and dynamically under
changing conditions.
• The transfer functions of the transducer H and
plant P1 are fixed, with F a compensator block
designed to match H and P1.
 Data acquisition system
• Data acquisition is the process of sampling signals that
measure real world physical conditions and converting
the resulting samples into digital numeric values that
can be manipulated by a computer.
• Data acquisition systems (DAS or DAQ) typically convert
analog waveforms into digital values for processing.
• The components of data acquisition systems include:
– Sensors that convert physical parameters to electrical signals.
– Signal conditioning circuitry to convert sensor signals into a
form that can be converted to digital values.
– Analog-to-digital converters, which convert conditioned
sensor signals to digital values.