Origins of Homeric Poetry

• Homer’s two epic poems (Iliad, Odyssey) are dated to c. 750 BC, but their stories go back
to Mycenaean times (1600-1100 BC). Probably something like the Trojan War did happen
c. 1200-1100 BC. The many cities mentioned in Homer can today be linked to real
archaeological sites, including the city of Troy itself. Actual objects described by Homer
like the shields of warriors and their helmets have been discovered at Mycenaean sites.
Today, it is thought that the stories of the Homeric poems were passed down orally by
bards for centuries and then were committed to writing by perhaps one individual author
called Homer (there is some debate on the question of the authorship of the poems)
sometime in the 8th century BC.
• While the gods figure prominently in the stories, they are about human beings and their
complex psychology. The first word of the Iliad is μῆνις (ménis) which means anger (i.e.
of Achilles) and of the Odyssey is ἄνδρα (andra) meaning “man”. Both first words set the
themes of the two works and they are clearly about two individuals and their psychology.
For the first time in world literature, two very real individual characters emerge in
Homeric poetry (Achilles and Odysseus) and their characters are explored in detail over
the course of two long poems. Even today, people can still relate to them, since their
portrayal is realistic and nuanced.
Themes of Homeric Poetry
• This psychological focus is very different from literature from other archaic
societies that precede Homer. Mesopotamian and Egyptian myths focus almost
exclusively on the gods and larger cosmic events. In Homer, however, there is a
sustained focus on human realities such as individual courage, willpower,
intelligence, effectiveness in speech, cunning, or loyalty.
• Although, the concept of a mind as a self-contained and independent entity
following it own internal laws had not emerged yet (this comes with philosophy in
the 5th century BC), individuals are understood as responsible for their actions and
their consequences. As Zeus says in book 1 of the Odyssey, human beings blame
the gods for their misfortunes when they themselves are responsible for them.
Because of this responsibility, human beings are significant agents in the world
and so worthy themes of art and poetry.
• See the article by Efstratios Sarischoulis “Fate, Divine Will and Narrative
Concept in the Homeric Epics” for more on individual
responsibility in Homer.
•
 The Story of the Judgment of Paris from the Cypria (7th Century BC)

• Because an abstract psychological vocabulary was lacking in Homeric

times, psychological realities were explored through stories and the
use of symbols. A good example is the story of the Judgment of Paris,
known to Homer and told more fully in the Cypria, an anonymous epic
poem from the early 600s BC.
• In the story, Peleus (a mortal man and father of Achilles) is marrying
Thetis (a goddess) and all the gods and heroes are invited, except Eris
the goddess of strife. Eris gets vengeance by sending into the
wedding party the apple of discord on which is written τη καλλίστη
(to the fairest). Three goddesses fight over it: Hera, Athena, and
Aphrodite. The Trojan prince, Paris, is asked to judge between the
three. Based on his own character, Paris chooses Aphrodite, who had
promised him in exchange the most beautiful woman in the world,
Helen of Troy. Athena had promised knowledge and wisdom and Hera
had promised power beyond that of any man.
 A Story with a Lesson about Human Psychology
• The story highlights the problematic nature of human choice and the terrible
consequences of choices made without proper care and insight. Paris must
choose between passion, wisdom, and power, but his choice is reckless since
it is shaped by his own passionate character. The consequences he unleashes
are terrible: he elopes with Helen, stealing her from her husband Menelaus,
brother of Agamemnon the most powerful man in all of the Greek world.
This causes the Trojan War which ultimately results in the destruction of
Paris’ home city of Troy, the death of all male members of his family, and the
enslavement of the women.
• The story touches on psychological themes later enshrined in two famous
inscribed on the Temple of Apollo at Delphi: γνῶθι σεαυτόν (know thyself)
and μηδὲν ἄγαν (nothing too much). Paris indulges his passionate nature
excessively (to the exclusion of wisdom and considerations of power) and is
not sufficiently knowledgeable of the shortcomings of his character (he
doesn’t know himself). He therefore errs in judgment and makes a terrible
choice with a terrible outcome.
 Achilles in the Iliad
Chalcidian Black-Figure
• The Iliad offers a similar message on the tragic consequences of a life destroyed by Amphora from 540-530
anger. In this case, the main character is Achilles and two stories (one of them BCE by the Inscriptions
mentioned in the Iliad, the other referred to in vases dating to the 6th century BC) Painter
about his early life reveal the nature of his character in the Iliad.
• When Achilles was born his mother, the goddess Thetis, wanted to make him
immortal and invulnerable so she dipped him in the river Styx. His body was given
a ritual death and couldn’t die again, except for his heel which his mother’s hand
covered as she dipped him in the Styx. The story suggests that Achilles is like a god
in so many respects, but like all human beings he also has his weak points. Achilles
is courageous, unflinching in battle, smart, a great speechmaker, loyal to his friends
and a great leader, but he is also impetuous, proud and high-spirited and these
qualities prove to be his undoing.
• His excessively proud spirit and unrestrained hunger for glory is evident in the story
of a choice he made at the beginning of the Trojan War. His mother told him men
were coming to get him to go to war and that if he went he would die young but
covered in immortal glory, but that if he stayed he would live a long, healthy,
happy, and prosperous life at home. Driven by his unbridled passion, he chose to
go to war. The message is clear: Achilles, as impressive as he is, lacks the balance
and restraint that could help him avoid the tragedy of his life.
The Anger of Achilles
• Achilles’ pride and unbridled passion is explored in the Iliad. In book 1, Agamemnon
takes away his prize in war, a young woman called Briseis. Achilles’ honour is slighted
and he reacts with unmeasured anger, cursing the Greek king and on the verge of
killing him until restrained by Athena (the embodiment of wisdom). But Achilles’ anger
continues to fester and he angrily decides to withdraw from battle with his men.
• The consequences of this choice made in anger are disastrous for the Greeks. Prince
Hector leads his Trojans to many victories and the Greeks die in great numbers, some
of them friends of Achilles. In Book 9, an embassy of the greatest Greeks heroes is
sent to Achilles with an apology and gifts from Agamemnon, but Achilles is unrelenting
in his anger and refuses these overtures. Again, Hector prevails in battle and more
Greeks die as a result of Achilles’ smoldering anger.
• In book 16, Patroclus can’t bear to see the Greeks die and asks Achilles for his armour
to rally the Greeks and scare the Trojans. Patroclus is successful and cuts down many
Trojans, but when he confronts Hector he is quickly defeated and killed.
• Now Achilles’ anger becomes unbounded fury (book 22). Homer describes him as
having become an inhuman monster. He slays Hector and mistreats his corpse (defying
all codes of heroic honour) leaving it on the beach to be eaten by the birds and dogs.
• Priam, Hector’s father, sneaks into Achilles’ tent at night (book 24), grabs the hands of
the man who killed his son, and begs for his son’s body. It’s only then, when all the
destruction has already happened, that Achilles wakes up from his monstrous fury and
in a moment of clarity relents. He cries and gives the body of Hector to the aged and
noble Priam.
 A Lasting Message about the Human Condition
• The Iliad delivers a profound message about the human condition. It’s truth
about human psychology is still relevant today and people across the ages
have related to it and to the very real character and tragedy of Achilles.
• Achilles had many great characteristics that could have led him to a happy
and successful life, yet he fell into the grip of a ruinous passion that clouded
his judgment and led him to a precipitous downfall. He did eventually
awaken from his destructive fury (something that clearly always remained a
possibility for him), but only when it was too late and so many of his
comrades and his best friend Patroclus had already died.
• This is why the story of Achilles is so poignant. He clearly has the requisite
characteristics to do great things, but he nonetheless succumbs to his fatal
flaw and brings ruin on himself and those around him.
• As the focus begins to be directed towards human agency in the Homeric
poems, there is a poignant awareness of how awe-inspiring the realties of
human responsibility in helping shape human destiny can be. Such a
realization is communicated so powerfully in book 11 of the Odyssey, when
in Hades the ghost of Achilles tells Odysseus that he would trade all the glory
he gained through his tragic heroism to be a servant but still alive under the
sweet sunlight.