Biological bases of

Behaviour
 Physiological Approach

 The study of underlying physiological bases of psychological functions is

known as physiological psychology.

 The two major communication systems of the body, the nervous system
and the circulatory system are the focus of most research in this area.
What is physiology?

 Physiology is defined as the "study of the physical and chemical processes

that take place in living organisms during the performance of life functions."

Therefore, the area of physiology studies activities such as reproduction,

growth, metabolism, respiration, excitation, and contraction to carefully

examine, the cells, tissues, organs, and organ systems of the body.
Then what do the physiological
psychologists do?

 In short, they study the functioning of the brain and the nervous system. In

other words it involves studying physiological aspects of the human mind.

The physiological psychologists look for links between mental disorders and

abnormalities in the nervous and circulatory systems of patients.

History

 The first laboratory for the investigation of the physiological basis of

psychology was founded by the German physiologist and psychologist

Wilhelm Wundt during the last quarter of the 19th century. The first such

laboratory in the U.S. was established at the close of the 19th century by

the American physiologist Henry Pickering Bowditch.

 Cell

 Physiological psychologists divide cell into three categories namely

 (i) The receptor cells

 (ii) Effector cells

 (iii) Glands.
 Receptor Cells

 These are cells which receive stimulation from specific type of stimulus. In a
normal organism these are affected by four types of stimuli, viz., thermal,
mechanical, chemical, and light.

 Thermal receptors are in the skin and they are both heat and cold
receptors.

 Mechanical receptors include cells for hearing, balance, and touch

sensation.

 Chemical receptors comprise of cells for smell, taste and those responsible
for sensitivity to chemicals.
 Effector Cells

 These include cells that makes the organism to give a response to stimulus.

 Muscles are created out of different types of individual cells and muscle

fibers and are of three types-

1. smooth muscles, found in visceral organs like intestines, abdomen and blood
vessels

2. striped muscels, also called skeletal muscles characterised with stripes are found
in muscles of arms, legs etc.

3. cardiac muscles, as the name suggests they are found in the heart.
 Glands

 These help maintain internal environment of the body through secretion of

chemical elements known as hormones.

 They are of two types:

1. Endocrine glands, secreting hormones directly into the blood,

2. Exocrine glands, their secretion goes out of body via ducts, therefore, are

also called duct glands like sweat gland, tear glands.

 NEURONS

 Neuron is the smallest unit of nervous system. It is neuron which converts

stimulation from different stimuli into electrical impulse. On the basis of
function they are divided into:

1. Sensory neuron, responsible for carrying nerve impulse from sense organ to
the brain and spinal cord.

2. Motor neuron, which are responsible to carry nerve impulse from brain and
spinal cord to effector muscles so that organism makes response to stimulus,

3. Association neuron, which are found only within the brain and spinal cord.
Types of Neurons
 Types of Neurons
• Sensory neurons
– Carry information from sensory systems to
the brain
– Also referred to as afferent
• Motor neurons
– Carry information from the brain to muscles
and glands
– Also referred to as efferent
• Interneurons (located in the spinal
cord)
– Carry information between other neurons
 Neurons: The Messengers
• About 100 billion neurons (nerve cells) in
the human brain. Recent estimates put it
at about 86 billion.
• About 100 trillion connections amongst
these neurons.
• Neurons have many of the same features
as other cells
– Nucleus
– Cytoplasm
– Cell membrane
• What makes neurons unique is their shape
and function
 Brain Activity Map Project
Started in 2013 this project is going to attempt to map the
connection of every neuron in a human brain by 2023
 Structure of Neurons
• Dendrites
– Carry information to the cell body from other
neurons
• Cell Body (Soma)
– Contains nucleus
• Axon
– Carries information to the next cell
• Myelin Sheath
– Insulates the axon and speeds up the neural
impulse
Neuron
 The membrane

• The membrane defines the boundary of the cell. It

consists of a double layer of lipid (fatlike) molecules.
• In the membrane are a variety of protein molecules that
have special functions.
• Some proteins detect substances outside the cell (such
as hormones) and pass information about the presence of
these substances to the interior of the cell.
 The membrane

• Other proteins control access to the interior of the cell,

permitting some substances to enter but barring others.

• The membrane of the neuron are especially important in

the transmission of information.

 Nucleus

• The nucleus (“nut”) of the cell is round or oval and is

enclosed by the nuclear membrane.
• The nucleolus and the chromosomes reside here.
• The nucleolus is responsible for the production of
ribosomes, small structures that are involved in protein
synthesis.
• The chromosomes, which consist of long strands of
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), contain the organism’s
genetic information.
• Proteins are important in cell functions. As well as

providing structure, proteins serve as enzymes, which

direct the chemical processes of a cell by controlling

chemical reactions.
 Mitochondria
• Mitochondria (singular: mitochondrion) are shaped like
oval beads and are formed of a double membrane.

• Mitochondria perform a vital role in the economy of the

cell; many of the biochemical steps that are involved in
the extraction of energy from the breakdown of nutrients
take place on the cristae, controlled by enzymes located
there.
Mitochondria
 Endoplasmic reticulum

• Endoplasmic reticulum, which serves as a storage

reservoir and as a channel for transporting chemicals

through the cytoplasm.

 The Golgi apparatus

• The Golgi apparatus is a special form of smooth

endoplasmic reticulum. Some complex molecules, made
up of simpler individual molecules, are assembled here.
• The Golgi apparatus also serves as a wrapping or
packaging agent. For example, secretory cells (such as
those that release hormones) wrap their product in a
membrane produced by the Golgi apparatus.
 The Golgi apparatus

• The Golgi apparatus also produces lysosomes, small

sacs that contain enzymes that break down substances

no longer needed by the cell. These products are then

recycled or excreted from the cell.

 Neurons supporting cells

• Neurons establish only about half the volume of the CNS.

The rest consists of a variety of supporting cells.
• Because neurons have a very high rate of metabolism but
have no means of storing nutrients, they must constantly
be supplied with nutrients and oxygen or they will quickly
die.
• Thus, the role played by the cells that support and protect
neurons is very important to our existence.
 Glia cells

• The most important supporting cells of the central nervous

system are the neuroglia, or “nerve glue.”
• Glia (also called glial cells) do indeed glue the CNS
together, but they do much more than that.
• Neurons lead a very sheltered existence; they are
buffered physically and chemically from the rest of the
body by the glial cells.
 Glial cells

• Glial cells surround neurons and hold them in place,

controlling their supply of nutrients and some of the
chemicals they need to exchange messages with other
neurons.
 Types of glial cells

• There are several types of glial cells, each of which plays

a special role in the CNS. The three most important types
are astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, and microglia.
 Astrocyte

• Astrocytes provide physical support to neurons and clean

up debris within the brain.
• They produce some chemicals that neurons need to fulfill
their functions.
• They help to control the chemical composition of the fluid
surrounding neurons by actively taking up or releasing
substances whose concentrations must be kept within
critical levels. Finally, astrocytes are involved in providing
nourishment to neurons.
 Astrocyte

• Recent evidence suggests that Golgi was right: Although

neurons receive some glucose directly from capillaries,
they receive most of their nutrients from astrocytes.

• When cells in the central nervous system die, certain

kinds of astrocytes take up the task of cleaning away the
debris.
 Astrocyte

• Besides transporting chemicals to neurons, astrocytes

serve as the matrix that holds neurons in place the “nerve

glue,” so to speak.
Structure and location of astrocytes
 Oligodendrocytes

• The principal function

oligodendrocytes is to provide
support to axons and to
produce the myelin sheath,
which insulates most axons
from one another. (Very small
axons are not myelinated and
lack this sheath).
 Oligodendrocytes

• Myelin, 80 percent lipid and 20

percent protein, is produced

by the oligodendrocytes in the

form of a tube surrounding the

axon.
 Microglia

• Microglia are the smallest of

the glial cells. Like some types
of astrocytes, they act a
phagocytes, engulfing and
breaking down dead and
dying neurons. But, in
addition, they serve as one of
• the representatives of the
immune system in the brain,
• protecting the brain from
invading microorganisms.
 Microglia

• They are primarily responsible

for the inflammatory reaction

in response to brain damage.

 Glia cells

CNS PNS

• Astrocytes, • Schwann cell

• Oligodendrocytes,

• and Microglia.
 Schwann Cell
• In the central nervous system the oligodendrocytes support

axons and produce myelin. In the peripheral nervous system

the Schwann cells perform the same functions.

 The Blood–Brain Barrier

• Over one hundred years ago, Paul Ehrlich discovered that if a

blue dye is injected into an animal’s blood- stream, all tissues
except the brain and spinal cord will be tinted blue.
• However, if the same dye is injected into the fluid-filled ventricles
of the brain, the blue color will spread throughout the CNS
(Bradbury, 1979). This experiment demonstrates that a barrier
exists between the blood and the fluid that surrounds the cells of
the brain: the blood–brain barrier.
Central Nervous System
Neuron System Cells
The Action Potential
Synapse
Neural Communication
Brain
Lobes
Parietal Lobe
Hemispheres - Connection
Brain Activity
Sympathetic Nervous System
Hormones
Neural Communication
 How do Neurons
Communicate?

Electrical Communication- Communication Within a Neuron

Chemical Communication- Communication Between Neurons

45
45
Neurons and Neuronal Communication:
The Structure of a Neuron

There are billions of neurons

(nerve cells) throughout the body.
59
 Action potential:
a neural impulse that travels down an
axon like a wave
Just as “the wave” can flow to
the right in a stadium even
though the people only move
up and down, a wave moves
down an axon although it is
only made up of ion exchanges
moving in and out.

60
 The Synapse
The synapse is a
junction between the
axon tip of the
sending neuron and
the dendrite or cell
body of the receiving
neuron.

The synapse is
also known as the
“synaptic
junction” or
“synaptic gap.”

61
 Neurotransmitters
Neurotransmitters
are chemicals used
to send a signal
across the synaptic
gap.

62
 Reuptake:
Recycling Neurotransmitters [NTs]

Reuptake:
After the neurotransmitters
stimulate the receptors on
the receiving neuron, the
chemicals are taken back up
into the sending neuron to be
used again.

63
Neural Communication:
Seeing all the Steps Together

64
 Roles of Different Neurotransmitters
Some Neurotransmitters and Their Functions
Neurotransmitter Function Problems Caused by Imbalances
Serotonin Affects mood, hunger, Undersupply linked to depression;
sleep, and arousal some antidepressant drugs raise
serotonin levels
Dopamine Influences movement, Oversupply linked to schizophrenia;
learning, attention, and undersupply linked to tremors and
emotion decreased mobility in Parkinson’s
disease and ADHD
Acetylcholine Enables muscle action, ACh-producing neurons deteriorate as
(ACh) learning, and memory Alzheimer’s disease progresses
Norepinephrine Helps control alertness Undersupply can depress mood and
and arousal cause ADHD-like attention problems
GABA (gamma- A major inhibitory Undersupply linked to seizures,
aminobutyric acid neurotransmitter tremors, and insomnia
Glutamate A major excitatory Oversupply can overstimulate the brain,
neurotransmitter; producing migraines or seizures; this is
involved in memory why some people avoid MSG
(monosodium glutamate) in food 65
 Serotonin Dopamine
pathways pathways
Networks of neurons that Networks of neurons that
communicate with serotonin communicate with dopamine are
help regulate mood. involved in focusing attention and
controlling movement.

66
 The Electrical Part
Action potential is an electrical current
sent down the axon.

The activity within the neurons is

electrical. This current causes the
neuron to “fire”

‐ This is an “all-or-none” process

52
 Chemical Communication
The communication between neurons is
chemical

Neurotransmitter are either neutralized

by an enzyme or taken back up by the
neuron that released it in reuptake.

‐ At least 50 different types of

neurotransmitters have been identified

53
 Synaptic transmission
The Synapse is the space between neurons
‐ The synaptic gap or cleft

• Information must be transmitted across

the synapse to other neurons via the
neurotransmitters.

• This is an electrochemical process

54
 Synaptic Transmission
The neurotransmitters are released from
the vesicles and then attach to receptors
located on the postsynaptic neuron.

These neurotransmitters are in contact

with the dendrite of the postsynaptic
neuron only briefly.

‐ The chemical is almost immediately

destroyed or reabsorbed
55
 __________

Presynaptic Neuron

________
________

____________

________________________

56
Chemical Communication

57
 Neurotransmitters

Neurotransmitters are chemical

substances that reside in the axon
terminals

• They communicate to other neurons by

binding to receptors on neighboring
neurons

59
 Acetylcholine

Activates motor neurons controlling

skeletal muscles

Contributes to the regulation of attention,

arousal and memory

60
Examples of Neurotransmitters
Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) is
involved in experiences of anxiety,
alcohol abuse, seizure disorders, and
sleep disorders

Serotonin is involved in sleep and

mood regulation and appetite (appetite
for carbohydrates)
61
 Dopamine

Involved in movement, thought

processes, emotion, feelings of reward
and pleasure

Implicated in schizophrenia, attention

deficit disorder, and drug abuse

62
 Norepinephrine

Involved in arousal reactions (increasing

heart rate, respiration, sweating, and
dilation of pupils)

May also be involved in hunger, eating,

and sexual activity

63
How do drugs effect
behavior?

64
64
 Drugs Impact on the Brain

Common drugs can alter the amount of a

neurotransmitter released at the synapses

Some drugs can mimic/facilitate the action of

the neurotransmitters while others can block
the action of the neurotransmitter.

65
Agonists versus Antagonists
Agonists mimic or facilitate the actions of a
neurotransmitter

Antagonists oppose/block the actions of a

neurotransmitter

Agonist Antagonist

66
 Nerve Impulse
• An impulse begins when a neuron is
stimulated by another neuron or the
environment
 NERVE IMPULSE
RESTING POTENTIAL
POLARISATION
ACTION POTENTIAL
DEPOLARISATION
ABSOLUTE REFRACORY PERIOD
RELATIVE REFRACTORY PERIOD

68
 Nervous System
• Messages carried by nervous system are electrical
signals called impulses
• Cells that transmit these impulses are called neurons
(basic units of nervous system)
– 3 types of neurons
1. Sensory
2. Motor
3. Interneurons
 Human Nervous System
• Divided into two major divisions:
– Central Nervous System (CNS)
• Relays messages, processes info and analyzes info
– Peripheral Nervous System
• Receives information from the environment and relays
commands from the CNS to organs and glands
NERVOUS SYSTEM
 CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
BRAIN SIZE
The brain is one of the most important organs because it controls so many of the body’s
functions. The brain makes up only 2% of the total body weight.

The volume of a human brain, otherwise known as cranial capacity, varies depending on
several factors, such as age, environment, and body size.
 Male Female Brain Differences
1. Total brain size: In adults, the average brain weight in men is about 11- 12% more than the
average brain weight in women. Men’s heads are also about 2% bigger than women’s.

2. Cell number: Men have 4% more brain cells than women , and about 100 grams more of
brain tissue.

3. Cellular connections: While men have more neurons in the cerebral cortex.

4. Corpus callosum: It is reported that a woman’s brain has a larger corpus callosum which
means women can transfer data between the right and left hemisphere faster than men.
 THE BRAIN
The brain is probably the most complex structure in the known universe. The
human brain is the center of the human nervous system and is a highly complex
organ.

This nervous system is composed of billions of cells, the most essential being
the nerve cells or neurons. There are estimated to be as many as 100 billion
neurons in our nervous system.
The human brain is an organ that controls an individual’s ability to breathe,
think, move and interact with the world around the individual. This organ
consists of more than 15 billion cells used to receive, interpret and transmit
information throughout the body.

These cells, which are known as neurons, form a series of parts that each
control a different set of body functions. It continuously receives sensory
information, and rapidly analyses this data and then responds, control bodily
actions and functions.
 Parts of human Brain
1. Myelencephalon– medulla
oblongata
2. Metencephalon- pons,
cerebellum
3. Mesencephalon- colliculi
4. Diencephalon- thalamus,
hypothalamus
5. Telencephalon- cerebral
cortex , limbic system
 Parts of human Brain
1. Forebrain- thalamus,
hypothalamus and
cerebrum
2. Midbrain
3. Hindbrain brain stem

Medulla, pons cerebellum,

reticular formation
 Forebrain
The forebrain is the largest
and most complex part of
the brain.
Its two major components
are the Telencephalon
and the Diencephalon.
1. Telencephalon- cerebral
hemisphere, limbic
system, basal ganglia
2. Diencephalon- thalamus
and hypothalamus
 Thalamus
• Thalamus- The Thalamus is
the brain’s sensory switchboard.
• It directs messages to the sensory
areas in the cortex and transmits
replies to the cerebellum and
medulla.
It receives information for all of the
senses EXCEPT for smell.
 Hypothalamus
The hypothalamus controls
your body temperature,
emotions, hunger, thirst,
appetite, digestion and
sleep.
 Basal ganglia
Motor control
 Limbic system
The Limbic System is a doughnut-shaped
system of neural structures at the border
of the brainstem and cerebrum,
associated with emotions such as fear,
aggression and drives for food and sex.

It includes the hippocampus,

amygdala, and hypothalamus.
 Hippocampus

The Hippocampus processes

memories.
 Amygdala
The Amygdala consists of two
almond-shaped neural clusters
linked to the emotions of fear and
anger.
 Hypothalamus

The Hypothalamus lies

below (hypo) the thalamus.

It directs several
maintenance activities like
eating, drinking, body
temperature, and control of
emotions.

It helps control the

endocrine system by giving
Pituitary
directions to the pituitary
gland.
II. The Cerebral
Cortex
Cerebral Cortex
The intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells that
covers the cerebral hemispheres. It is the body’s ultimate
control and information processing center.
Structure of the Cerebral Cortex

Each brain hemisphere

is divided into four
lobes that are separated
by prominent fissures. A.
B.

These lobes are the: D. C.

a. frontal lobe –
judgement/reasoning
b. parietal lobe – senses
c. occipital lobe – vision
d. temporal lobe –
hearing
Functions of the Cerebral Cortex

The Motor Cortex is the area at the rear of the frontal lobes
that control voluntary movements.

The Sensory Cortex is the area at the front of the parietal lobes
that receives information from skin surface and sense organs.
Functions of the Cerebral Cortex

The visual cortex is

located in the occipital
lobe of the brain.

The functional MRI

scan shows the visual
cortex is active as the
subject looks at faces.
Functions of the Cerebral Cortex
The auditory cortex is
located in the temporal
lobe of the brain.

http://www.ted.com/talks/lang/eng/oliver_sacks_what_hallucination
_reveals_about_our_minds.html
Association Areas
The association areas integrate sensory information and
stored memories. More intelligent animals have
increased “uncommitted” or association areas of the
cortex.
The Curious Story of
Phineas Gage (1848)

Frontal lobe damage showed effects on personality and social functioning

Language
Broca’s area (impaired speaking) or to
Wernicke’s area (impaired understanding).
 Our Divided Brain
 Our brain is divided into two hemispheres.
 The Left Hemisphere
 Processes logical tasks (reading, writing, speaking,
mathematics, and comprehension skills)
 Controls the right side of our body
 In the 1960s, it was termed as the dominant brain.
 The Right Hemisphere
 Processes non-verbal tasks/perceptual (spatial relationships,
musical/artistic ability and mental imagery)
 Controls the left side of our body
 May also be related to some negative emotions

The Corpus Callosum is a wide band of

axon fibers that connect the two hemispheres
and allow them to communicate.
Splitting the Brain
A procedure in which the two hemispheres of the brain are
isolated by cutting the connecting fibers (mainly those of the
corpus callosum) between them. Usually done to prevent
uncontrollable seizures in patients with severe epilepsy.

Corpus Callosum
The Brain’s Plasticity

 The brain is sculpted by

our genes but also by our experiences.
 Plasticity refers to the brain’s ability to modify itself
after some type of injury or illness.
 Usually the brain areas that are related to the
damaged/missing part develop the ability to function as a
part of the new system. For example, in blind people the
visual cortex may register and process touch and/or
hearing also (heightening those senses)

 Our brains demonstrate more plasticity when we are

children.