Chapter-2 1

Mobile Network Layer

Outlines • Introduction to MNL
• Mobile IP
• How Mobile IP works
• Mobile IP Components and
r/ships
• Mobile IP Registration
• Encapsulation and
Decapsulation in Mobile IP
• Problems of using mobile IP
• Advantages and Disadvant.. Of
Mobile IP 2
Introduction to MNL
• Mobile network layers, particularly through protocols like Mobile IP,
enable transparent routing of IP datagrams, allowing mobile devices to
maintain their IP address and communication even when changing
networks or locations.

• Transparent Routing: Mobile IP allows mobile nodes to retain their

home IP address, even when roaming or changing networks, ensuring
that applications and services can continue to communicate with them
without interruption.

• Mobile IP works b/n network and transport layer.

• Mobile IP provides transparent Routing of IP datagram over Internet.

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“For efficient delivery of services to the mobile users, the next generation of
wireless networks require new mechanisms of mobility management, where the
location of every user is proactively determined before the service is delivered.”
Mobility management is the focus of mobile network layer.

Two important points mainly discussed in this chapter.

1. Location Management—enables the serving networks to locate a mobile
subscriber’s point of attachment for delivering data packets.
It deals with how to track subscribers on the move.

2. Handoff Management---maintain a mobile subscriber’s connection as it

continues to change its point of attachment.
Maintaining consistent connections for subscribers during on the move
What Mobile Users Needs?
----Seamless mobility
---“connect” from any location, at any time
---convenience of use (no extra setup, “plug and play”)
---same computing environment, same services, consistent
interfaces, regardless of location
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Motivation for Mobile IP
• Routing—forwarding packets from Tx to Rx.
– based on IP destination address,
– network prefix (e.g. 129.13.42) determines physical
subnet
– change of physical subnet => change of IP address to
have a topological correct address (standard IP)
– traditional IP routing that requires address changes
with location changes.
• Solution: Temporarily change routing table entries for mobile
host
– To handle a mobile host's IP address, change due to a physical
subnet shift, temporarily modify routing table entries on the
mobile host, allowing it to maintain connectivity to its original
network while transitioning to the new subnet.
– Problem: does not scale if many mobile hosts or frequent
location changes.
• Solution: Change mobile host IP-address
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– adjust the host IP address depending on the current
location
– DNS updates take to long time
Motivation for Mobile IP…..
• IP assumes end hosts are in fixed physical
locations
– What happens if we move a host between
networks?
– What is IP routing and how we handle it?
Which layer control’s IP routing? How we
determine best path?
• IP addresses enable IP routing algorithms to get
packets to the correct network.
– Each IP address has network part and host
part.
– What is their role?
– DHCP is used to get packets to end hosts in
networks 6

• What if a user wants to roam between networks,

or ISPs?
 What is mobile IP (MIP)?
Mobile IP is a communication protocol that allows users to move
from one network to another network with same IP address.
Mobile IP was developed to enable computers to maintain Internet
connectivity while moving from one Internet attachment point to
another.
When a user leaves a home network and enters in another
network (foreign network) the foreign network uses the mobile IP
protocol to inform the home network of a care-of-addresses to
which all packets for the user’s device should be sent.
How to bind home address to CoA? Mobile IP
Home address is the permanent IP address assigned to the mobile
node, and mobile node uses this address in its home address.
Care-of address is the temporary address used by a mobile node
while it is moving away from its home network. It is assigned as
static IP address of the visited network from the foreign agent or
allocated dynamically via DHCP server.
Collocated- care-of-addresses– When the mobile node acting as a
foreign agent, the MN & FA will have the same address which is
called collocated COA.
Example: 7
Mobile Node (MN): The mobile node has a home IP address of
203.0.113.10.
CoCoA: While visiting a foreign network, it may obtain an address
like 198.51.100.5 (this could be dynamically assigned via DHCP or similar).
 What is mobile IP (MIP)?

Situations Where CoCoA Is Used Instead of a CoA???

--No Foreign Agent (FA) Available
--Simplicity and Flexibility in Configuration
--Mobile Node Wants Direct Connectivity
--Network Infrastructure Limitation
--When Foreign Agent or Home Agent Is Not Desired

Use CoCoA when you don’t have access to a Foreign Agent, or if you
want to simplify the network setup without relying on Mobile IP
infrastructure.

Use CoA (provided by a Foreign Agent) when you have a Mobile IP

network with agents that can manage routing and mobility, typically
in more complex environments where seamless roaming is needed.
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 What is Handoff (handover) in mobility
•mgt
In cellular communications, handoff is the
process of transferring an active call or data
session from one cell in a cellular network or
from one channel to another.
• In satellite communications, handoff is the
process of transferring control from one earth
station to another.
• Handoff is necessary for preventing loss of
interruption of service to a caller or a data
session user. MSC/APs usually adopts a channel
assignment strategy that prioritizes handoff calls over
new calls. Handoffs may be prioritized; new calls may
be queued.

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• Situations for triggering Handoff
• Handoffs are triggered in any of the following
situations:−

1. If a subscriber who is in a call or a data session

moves out of coverage of one cell/AP and
enters coverage area of another cell/AP, a
handoff is triggered for a consistent service.
The tasks that were being performed by the
first cell are delineating to the latter cell.

2. Each cell has a pre-defined capacity, i.e. it can

handle only a specific number of subscribers. If
the number of users using a particular cell
reaches its maximum capacity, then a handoff10
occurs. Some of the calls are transferred to
connecting cells, provided that the subscriber
is in the overlapping coverage area of both the
Situations for triggering Handoff

3. Cells are often sub-divided into microcells. A

handoff may occur when there is a transfer of
duties from the large cell to the smaller cell and
vice versa.

• For example, there is a traveling user moving

within the authority of a large cell. If the
traveler stops, then the authority is transferred
to a microcell to relieve the load on the large
cell. We may have microcells for load balancing
purpose within a large cell.

4. Handoffs may also occur when there is an 11

interference of calls using the same frequency for
communication.
There are two types of handoffs based on execution
• Hard Handoff − an actual break in the
connection occurs while switching from one cell
to another. The radio links from the mobile
station to the existing cell is broken before
establishing a link with the next cell. It is
generally an inter-frequency handoff. It is a
“break before make” policy.
• Soft Handoff − at least one of the links is kept
when radio links are added and removed to the
mobile station.
• This ensures that during the handoff, no break
occurs. This is generally adopted in co-located
sites. It is a “make before break” policy.

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Handoff process

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Therefore, mobile IP operates on top of IP

the permanent identifier

for the mobile node.

allowing the mobile node to send and receive

packets while away from its home network.

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Requirement to Mobile IP Implementation

,Including by preserving
CIA

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Mobile IP basic issues
• Mobile IP was developed as a means for transparently
dealing with problems of mobile users.
– It enables hosts to stay connected to the internet
regardless of their location
– It enables hosts to be tracked without needing to
change their ip address
– It requires no changes to software of non-mobile
hosts/routers
– It requires addition of some infrastructure
– It has no geographical limitations
– It requires no modifications to ip addresses or ip
address format
– It supports security
• Could be even more important than physically 16

connected routing
• IETF standardization process is still underway
Terminology
You should have to be familiar with the following
terminology.
Mobile node
 Correspondent node
Home network
Home agent
Foreign network
Foreign agent
Home addresses
Care of addresses
Collocated- care-of-addresses
Manual Configuration by the Mobile Node
Direct Configuration from the Mobile Node’s Own Network
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To make a change of addresses transparent to
the Internet we use two agents. FA and HA.
Mobile IP Entities
Mobile Node (MN)
– The entity that may change its point of attachment from
network to network in the Internet without changing its IP
address
• Detects it has moved and registers with “best” FA
– Assigned a permanent IP called its home address to which other
hosts send packets regardless of MN’s location
• Since this IP doesn’t change it can be used by long-lived
applications as MN’s location changes.
Home Agent (HA)---
– System/device in the home network of the MN, typically a router
– Registers the location of the MN, it tunnels IP datagrams to the
COA or packet delivery towards the MN is done via a tunnel.
– Located on home network of MN
– Does mobility binding of MN’s IP with its COA
– Forwards packets to appropriate network when MN is away 18
• Does this through encapsulation
• The encapsulated packet is then forwarded to the Care-of
Address (CoA), which is the location of the mobile node in
Mobile IP Entities contd.
• Foreign Agent (FA)
– Another router with enhanced functionality
– If MN is away from HA then it uses FA to send/receive data
to/from HA
– Advertises itself periodically
– Forward’s MN’s registration request
– Decapsulates messages for delivery to MN
– If the mobile node is using a Foreign Agent (FA), the Foreign Agent
receives the encapsulated packet and decapsulates it. It then forwards
the original packet to the mobile node's Care-of Address (CoA).
– If the mobile node is using a colocated Care-of Address, the mobile
node itself receives the encapsulated packet, decapsulates it, and
processes the original packet.
• Care-of-address (COA)--The Foreign Agent (FA) provides (CoA) for
MNs.
– Address which identifies MN’s current location
– Sent by FA to HA when MN attaches 19

– Usually the IP address of the FA

– Actual location of the MN from an IP point of view, The Foreign Agent
(FA) is also responsible for routing packets to the mobile node's current
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Deals how mobile IP works of the 3 phases

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How Mobile IP Works
Mobile IP has three main phases, to communicate with remote host to mobile node. Or it
needs the 3 steps for network integration
1. Agent discovery:- A mobile node has to find a foreign agent when it moves away from
home network during discovery. To solve this problem mobile IP uses two methods:
agent advertisement and agent solicitation which are in fact router discovery methods
plus extensions.

Agent advertisement: Learning of CoA or Home address

‐ Foreign agents are expected to issue agent advertisement messages
periodically.

---MN’s listen for advertisement and then initiate registration.

---HA and FA periodically send advertisement messages into their
subnets via ICMP. MN reads a CoA from the FA advertisement messages
Agent solicitation: sending a message for the near Rs for CoA.
-If no agent advertisements are present or the inter arrival time is too high, and a MN has
not received a CoA, the mobile node must send agent solicitations.
Is there anybody who will help me to get services from the near-by routers?

These solicitations and advertisement are again bases on RFC 1256 24

for router solicitations and advertisement.

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Agent advertisement format: the process for learning CoA

:-Value indicating result of request

Type=explains type of message formats =>1 for registration request; 3 for replay; and 16 for agent
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advertisement
2. Registration:-purpose to inform HA, the current location
of MN.
‐ MN requests the forwarding service by sending a registration
request to the foreign agent (FA) that it wants to use
‐ FA conveys this request (with CoA) to the mobile node’s home agent
(HA)
‐ HA either accepts or denies the request and sends a registration
reply to the FA and FA relays this reply to the MN
‐ Registration operation uses two types of messages carried in UDP
segments:
‐ Registration request message and Registration reply message

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2. Registration request message format:-

Type=>the type of the message=like 1 for request, 3 for replay…………

Flag=> all the forwarding information
Lifetime=>for how long registration request is valid
Home address=>permanent address of HN
COA=Temporary address of the MN
Identification =>64 bit used to identify the message used as sequence number 28
Extension=>authentication of message
2. Registration replay format:-

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Mobile IP Registration …

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Mobile IP Registration ….

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3. Tunneling (data transfer):-
‐ Tunneling:- routing the packets to the mobile node where ever it is
located. Or Delivery of packets to the mobile node. A reciprocal tunnel is set up by
the Home Agent to the care-of address (current location of the Mobile Node on the
foreign network) to route packets to the Mobile Node as it roams.

Encapsulation – attaching CoA to the packet with Home address

Decapsulation – Detaching CoA to the packet with Home address

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Tunneling…….

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Here’s a step-by-step breakdown of how indirect routing works in Mobile IP:
1. Home Agent (HA): When a mobile device connects to a foreign network, it
registers its new care-of address (CoA) with a Home Agent, which is a server
located in the device’s home network.
2. Correspondent Node (CN): The device's Correspondent Node, which wants to
communicate with the mobile device, sends data to the mobile device's
permanent IP address (home address).
3. Tunneling: The Home Agent intercepts the data intended for the mobile
device at its home address. The HA then encapsulates or tunnels the packets
and forwards them to the device’s current CoA in the foreign network.
4. Foreign Agent (FA): In some Mobile IP implementations, the Foreign Agent in
the foreign network assists by decapsulating the packets and delivering them
to the mobile device.
5. Return Path: When the mobile device replies to the Correspondent Node, it
usually sends the reply directly to the CN, not through the Home Agent (to
optimize routing).
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Key Characteristics of Indirect Routing:
Inefficient routing (Triangle routing): Packets take a
bypass through the Home Agent, which may cause longer
delays.

Home Agent Dependency: The process relies on the Home

Agent to forward packets to the mobile device, which can
create a single point of failure or bottleneck.

There are problems also on direct communications

between CN and MN. Determine those problems… 38
Optimization of packet forwarding
• Triangular Routing
– sender sends all packets via HA to MN
– Triangular routes longer, higher latency and network
load
• “Solutions”
– HA informs a sender about the location of MN
– sender learns current location of MN
– direct tunneling to this location
– big security problems!
• Change of FA
– packets on-the-fly during the change can be lost
– new FA informs old FA to avoid packet loss
– old FA forwards remaining packets to new FA 39

– Update also enables old FA to release resources for

MN
Encapsulation and Decapsulation in Mobile
• In Mobile IP, encapsulation and decapsulation
IP
are crucial to ensure that data packets can be
delivered to a mobile device even when it
moves between different networks.
• Encapsulation is the process where the Home
Agent (HA) wraps the original packet intended
for the mobile device in an additional IP header.
• This is necessary because the mobile device
may not be in its home network and might have
a temporary address called a Care-of Address
(CoA) in a foreign network.
• Decapsulation is the reverse process where the
Foreign Agent (FA) (or the mobile device itself)
removes the outer IP header added during 40

encapsulation, revealing the original packet.

The device can then process the original packet
Encapsulation and Decapsulation in Mobile IP...
• Steps in Encapsulation:
• A Correspondent Node (CN) sends a packet to the
mobile device’s Home Address (the permanent IP
address of the mobile device).
• The Home Agent intercepts the packet, recognizing that
the mobile device is not in its home network but has
moved to a foreign network.
• The Home Agent encapsulates the entire packet into
another IP packet. The original packet, including its
headers, becomes the payload of this new packet.
• The new outer IP header contains:
– Source Address: Home Agent's IP address.
– Destination Address: Mobile device’s current Care-of
Address (CoA) in the foreign network.
– Done using IP-in-IP tunneling or GRE (Generic Routing 41

Encapsulation).
Encapsulation and Decapsulation in Mobile IP...
• Steps in Decapsulation:
• The encapsulated packet arrives at the Care-of Address
(CoA) in the foreign network.
• The Foreign Agent (or the mobile device itself if it has
its own CoA) receives the packet.
• The outer IP header (containing the Home Agent as the
source and the CoA as the destination) is removed.
• The inner, original packet (which has the Correspondent
Node as the source and the mobile device’s home IP as
the destination) is extracted.
• The mobile device processes the original packet as if it
had been directly sent to its home address.
– Encapsulation: Done by the Home Agent, where the original
packet is wrapped with an additional IP header to tunnel it to
the mobile device’s Care-of Address. 42

– Decapsulation: Performed by the Foreign Agent or mobile device

itself, where the outer header is removed, revealing the original
packet to be processed by the mobile device.
 Advantages of using Mobile IP

• It allows fast, continuous low‐cost access to corporate

networks in remote areas where there is no public
telephone system or cellular coverage.
• It supports a wide range of applications from Internet
access and e‐mail to e‐commerce.
• Users can be permanently connected to their Internet
provider and charged only for the data packets that are
sent and received.
• Lower equipment and utilization costs for those
requiring reliable high‐speed data connections in remote
locations worldwide.
• A user can take a palmtop or laptop computer
anywhere without losing the connection to the home
network.
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• Mobile IP finds local IP routers and connects
automatically. It is phone‐jack and wire‐free.
• Other than mobile nodes/routers, the remaining routers
 Advantages…..
• Authentication is performed to ensure that rights are
being protected.
• Mobile IP can move from one type of medium to
another without losing connectivity.
It is unique in its ability to accommodate heterogeneous
mobility in addition to homogenous mobility.

Disadvantage of Mobile IP
• There is a routing inefficiency problem caused by the
“triangle routing” formed by the home agent,
correspondent host, and the foreign agent.
• Security risks are the most important problem facing
Mobile IP. Besides the traditional security risks with IP,
one has to worry about faked care‐of addresses. 44
• Another issue related to the security is how to make
Mobile IP coexist with the security features coming in use
within the Internet.
THANK YOU

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