Module – 1

Basic Electronics
Engineering

By
Venkata Sridhar. T M.Tech, PhD, FIETE

Assistant Professor of ETC.

IIIT-Bhubaneswar.
 Overview & Introduction

2
By T.VenkataSridhar , ETC
3
By T.VenkataSridhar , ETC
4
By T.VenkataSridhar , ETC
5
By T.VenkataSridhar , ETC
 Syllabus : Module-1

The Diodes:

12 Hrs

6
By T.VenkataSridhar , ETC
 Major materials in Electronics

7
By T.VenkataSridhar , ETC
8
By T.VenkataSridhar , ETC
9
By T.VenkataSridhar , ETC
 Semiconductor Materials: (Most common)
 The construction of every discrete (individual) solid-state (hard
crystal structure) electronic device or integrated circuit begins
with a semiconductor material of the highest quality.
Semiconductors are a special class of elements having a
conductivity between that of a good conductor and that
of an insulator.

 In general, semiconductor materials fall into one of two

classes: single-crystal and compound.
 Single-crystal semiconductors such as germanium (Ge) and
silicon (Si) have a repetitive crystal structure, whereas
 Compound semiconductors such as gallium arsenide (GaAs),
cadmium sulfide (CdS), gallium nitride (GaN), and gallium
arsenide phosphide (GaAsP) are constructed of two or more
semiconductor materials of different atomic structures.

The three semiconductors used most frequently in the

10construction of electronic devices are Ge, Si, and GaAs.
By T.VenkataSridhar , ETC
 …(1)
Fig: Energy levels

11
By T.VenkataSridhar , ETC
 Intrinsic (Pure) Semiconductors

12
By T.VenkataSridhar , ETC
 Extrinsic (Impure – but can conduct) Semiconductors

n-type and p-type materials

A semiconductor material that has been

subjected to the doping process is called an
extrinsic material.
There are two extrinsic materials of immeasurable
importance to semiconductor device fabrication: n-type and p-
type materials.
13
By T.VenkataSridhar , ETC
n-type material
 Both n-type and p-type materials are formed by adding a predetermined
number of impurity atoms to a silicon/germanium (pure semiconductor) base.

 An n-type material is created by introducing impurity elements that have five

valence electrons ( pentavalent), such as antimony, arsenic, and phosphorus.

 Diffused impurities with five valence electrons are called “donor atoms”.

14
By T.VenkataSridhar , ETC
 It is important to realize that even though a large number of free
carriers have been established in the n-type material, it is still
electrically neutral since ideally the number of positively charged
protons in the nuclei is still equal to the number of free and orbiting
negatively charged electrons in the structure.
At room temperature in an intrinsic Si material there is about one free electron for
every 1012 atoms. If the dosage level is 1 in 10 million (10 7), the ratio 1012 / 107 =105
indicates that the carrier concentration has increased by a ratio of 100,000:1.
p-type material
 The p-type material is formed by doping a pure germanium or silicon crystal
with impurity atoms having three valence electrons. The elements most frequently used
for this purpose are boron, gallium, and indium.

 Each is a member of a subset group of elements in the Periodic Table of

Elements referred to as Group III because each has three valence electrons.

 The resulting vacancy is called a hole and is represented by a small circle or a

plus sign, indicating the absence of a negative charge. Since the resulting vacancy will
readily accept a free electron.

The diffused impurities with three valence electrons are called acceptor atoms.
15
By T.VenkataSridhar , ETC
 Electron versus hole Flow

16
By T.VenkataSridhar , ETC
 Majority and minority Carriers
In an n-type material the electron is called the majority
carrier and the hole the minority carrier.
In a p-type material the hole is the majority carrier and the
electron is the minority carrier.

17
By T.VenkataSridhar , ETC
Semiconductor diodes:
• ✓
PN junction diode
• ✓
Zener diode (Symbols)
• Tunnel diode
• Schottky diode
• Varactor diode
• DIAC PN

• TRIAC
• SCR
• Light Emitting Diode
✓
• Photodiode
• Laser diode
• Avalanche diode, etc. (Many
more)
18
By T.VenkataSridhar , ETC
 PN-Junction Diode Physical Operation

19
By T.VenkataSridhar , ETC
Biasing the diodes:
 Biasing, in general, is defined as an arrangement (applied voltage) made in
the diodes or any electronic circuit to allow a larger flow of current in a
certain direction (faithful operation).

At the instant, the

two materials are
“joined” (P and N) the
electrons and the
holes in the region of
the junction will
combine, resulting in
a lack of free carriers
in the region near the
junction, as shown
This region of uncovered positive and negative ions is
beside.
called the depletion region due to the “depletion”
(reduction of something) of free carriers in the region.
“In the absence of an applied bias across a
20
semiconductor diode, the net flow of By T.VenkataSridhar , ETC
 If an external potential of V volts is applied across the p–n junction such that
the positive terminal is connected to the n-type material and the negative
terminal is connected to the p-type material as shown below.

Fig: Reverse-biased p–n junction: internal distribution of charge under

reverse-bias conditions; and reverse-bias polarity and direction of
reverse saturation current.
The current that exists under reverse-bias conditions
is called the reverse saturation current and is
21
represented by Is By T.VenkataSridhar , ETC
 A forward-bias or “on” condition is established by applying the positive
potential to the p-type material and the negative potential to the n-type
material as shown below.
The application of a forward-bias potential V D will “pressure” electrons in
the n-type material and holes in the p-type material to recombine with the ions
near the boundary and reduce the width of the depletion region as shown in
below Fig. (a)

Fig: Forward-biased p–n junction: (a) internal distribution of charge

22 under forward-bias conditions; (b) forward-bias polarity and
direction of resulting current. By T.VenkataSridhar , ETC
 PN-Junction Diode Physical Operation Graphic

23
By T.VenkataSridhar , ETC
 PN-Junction Diode Equation
 It can be demonstrated using solid-state physics that the general
characteristics of a semiconductor diode can be defined by the following
equation, referred to as Shockley’s equation, for the forward- and reverse-
bias regions
…(2)
Where as,
Is is the reverse saturation current
VD is the applied forward-bias voltage across the diode
n is an ideality factor, which is a function of the operating conditions and physical
construction; it has a range between 1 and 2 depending on a wide variety of factors
(normally n=1).
The voltage VT in Eq.(1 eV =1.6×10-19 J) is called the thermal voltage and is determined by

…(3)

24
By T.VenkataSridhar , ETC
 The thermal voltage will become an important parameter in the
analysis of the diode.

25
By T.VenkataSridhar , ETC
Silicon semiconductor diode
characteristics (VI).

Fig:
Silicon
semiconductor
diode
characteristics.

26
By T.VenkataSridhar , ETC
  Even though the scale of Fig. above slide is in tens of volts in the negative
region, there is a point where the application of too negative a voltage with
the reverse polarity will result in a sharp change in the characteristics, as
shown in Fig. below.
 The current increases at a very rapid rate in a direction opposite to that of the
positive voltage region. The reverse-bias potential that results in this dramatic
change in characteristics is called the breakdown potential and is given the
label VBV.

27
Fig: breakdown region By T.VenkataSridhar , ETC
 [characteristics (VI)]
As noted on the
curves, the
center of the
knee (hence
the K is the
notation V ) of K

the curve is
about 0.3 V for
Ge, 0.7 V for Si,
and 1.2 V for
GaAs (see Table
3).

28 Fig: Comparison of Ge, Si, and GaAs commercial By T.VenkataSridhar , ETC

 [characteristics (VI)
computation]
Using the curves of Fig above (slide 28):
a. Determine the voltage across each diode at a current of 1 mA?

b. Repeat for a current of 4 mA?

c. Repeat for a current of 30 mA?

d. Determine the average value of the diode voltage for the range of
currents listed above?

e. How do the average values compare to the knee voltages listed in

Table 3?
29
By T.VenkataSridhar , ETC
 It is found that a p–n junction will permit a generous flow of charge when
forward-biased and a very small level of current when reverse-biased. An analogy
often used to describe the behavior of a semiconductor diode is a mechanical
switch as in left side figure.

Ideally, if the semiconductor diode is to behave like a closed switch in the

forward-bias region, the resistance of the diode should be 0Ω. In the reverse-bias
region its resistance should be ∞Ω to represent the open-circuit equivalent as in
right side figure.

Fig: Ideal semiconductor

diode: (a) forward-
biased; (b) reverse-
biased. Fig: Ideal versus actual semiconductor charac
30
By T.VenkataSridhar , ETC
 As the operating point of a diode moves from one region to another the
resistance of the diode will also change due to the nonlinear shape of
the characteristic curve.

The application of a dc voltage to a circuit containing a semiconductor

diode will result in
an operating point on the characteristic curve that will not change with
time. The resistance of the diode at the operating point can be found
simply by finding the corresponding levels of V and I as shown in Fig.
D D

below and applying the following equation (4):

…(4)

In general, therefore, the higher the

current through a diode, the lower
is the dc resistance
level.
Fig: Determining the dc Typically, the dc resistance of a diode in
resistance of a diode at a the active (most utilized) will range from
31 particular operating point. about 10 Ω to 80 Ω .
By T.VenkataSridhar , ETC
32
By T.VenkataSridhar , ETC
 The dc resistance of a diode is independent of the shape of the
characteristic in the region surrounding the point of interest.
 If a sinusoidal rather than a dc input is applied, the situation
will change completely.
 The varying input will move the instantaneous operating point
up and down a region of the characteristics and thus defines a
specific change in current and voltage as shown in Fig. below.

With no applied
varying signal, the
point of operation
would be the Q-point
appearing on Fig.
determined by the
applied dc levels. The
designation Q-point is
derived from the word
quiescent, which
33 means “still or By T.VenkataSridhar , ETC
 In general, therefore, the lower the Q-
point of operation (smaller current or
lower voltage), the higher is the ac
resistance.

34
By T.VenkataSridhar , ETC
35
By T.VenkataSridhar , ETC
36
By T.VenkataSridhar , ETC
 (Mathematical)
Dynamic resistance
Its observed the dynamic resistance graphically, but there is a
basic definition in differential calculus that states:
The derivative of a function at a point is equal to the
slope of the tangent line drawn at that point.
If we find the derivative of the general equation (2) for the
semiconductor diode with respect to the applied forward bias
and then invert the result, we will have an equation for the
37 dynamic or ac resistance in that region.
By T.VenkataSridhar , ETC
38 By T.VenkataSridhar , ETC
  All the resistance levels determined thus far have been
defined by the p–n junction and do not include the resistance
of the semiconductor material itself (called body resistance)
and the resistance introduced by the connection between the
semiconductor material and the external metallic conductor
(called contact resistance). These additional resistance levels
can be included in Eq. (6) by adding a resistance denoted r : B

The resistance r’ , therefore, includes the dynamic resistance

d

defined by Eq. (6) and the resistance r just introduced. The

B

factor r can range from typically 0.1 V for high-power devices

B

to 2 V for some low-power, general-purpose diodes.

If the input signal is sufficiently large to produce a broad swing

such as indicated in Fig. next slide, the resistance associated
with the device for this region is called the average ac
39 resistance. By T.VenkataSridhar , ETC
 The average ac resistance is, by definition, the resistance
determined by a straight line drawn between the two
intersections established by the maximum and minimum values
of input voltage.

As with the dc and ac resistance

Fig.: Determining the average ac
levels, the lower the level of
currents used to determine the resistance between indicated limits.
40 average resistance, the higher is By T.VenkataSridhar , ETC
the resistance level.
41 By T.VenkataSridhar , ETC
  One technique for obtaining an equivalent circuit for a diode is
to approximate the characteristics of the device by straight-line
segments, as shown in Fig. below. The resulting equivalent
circuit is called a piecewise-linear equivalent circuit.

Fig:
Defining
the
piecewise-
linear
equivalent
circuit
using
straight-
line
segments
to
42
approximat By T.VenkataSridhar , ETC
For most applications, the resistance r is sufficiently small to be
av

ignored in comparison to the other elements of the network.

Removing r from the equivalent circuit is the same as implying
av

that the characteristics of the diode appear as shown in Fig. below.

Fig.: Simplified
equivalent
circuit for the
silicon
semiconductor
diode.

Now that r av has been removed from the equivalent circuit, let us take the
analysis a step further and establish that a 0.7-V level can often be
ignored. In this case the equivalent circuit will be reduced to that of an
ideal diode as shown in Fig. below.

43 Fig.: Ideal diode and its characteristics.By T.VenkataSridhar , ETC

 It is important to realize that:
 Every electronic or electrical device is frequency sensitive.
 That is, the terminal characteristics of any device will change with
frequency.
 Even the resistance of a basic resistor, as of any construction, will be
sensitive to the applied frequency.
 At low to mid-frequencies most resistors can be considered fixed in
value. However, as we approach high frequencies, stray capacitive and
inductive effects start to play a role and will affect the total impedance
level of the element.
 For the diode it is the stray capacitance levels that have the greatest
effect.
 At low frequencies and relatively small levels of capacitance the
reactance of a capacitor, determined by XC = 1/2πfC, is usually so high
it can be considered infinite in magnitude, represented by an open
circuit, and ignored.
 At high frequencies, however, the level of XC can drop to the point
where it will introduce a low-reactance “shorting” path. If this shorting
44 path is across the diode, it can essentially keep the diode from affecting
By T.VenkataSridhar , ETC
 The fact that the capacitance is dependent on the applied
reverse-bias potential has application in a number of electronic
systems. This capacitance, called the transition (C ), barriers, or
T

depletion region capacitance, is determined by

C(0) is the capacitance under no-
bias conditions and
V is the applied reverse bias
R

potential.
The power n is ½ or ⅓ depending
on the manufacturing process for
the diode. And VK Knee potential.
Although the effect described above will also be present in the
forward-bias region, it is overshadowed by a capacitance effect
directly dependent on the rate at which charge is injected into
the regions just outside the depletion region.
The result is that increased levels of current will result in
increased levels of diffusion capacitance (C ) as demonstrated by
D

the following
where τT is theequation:
minority carrier lifetime (τ =
RC),
VK Knee potential and
45 ID Diode current. By T.VenkataSridhar , ETC
 The transition capacitance is the predominant capacitive
effect in the reverse-bias region whereas the diffusion
capacitance is the predominant capacitive effect in the
forward-bias region.

Including the effect of

the transition or
diffusion capacitance
on the semiconductor
diode.

Fig.: Transition and diffusion capacitance versus applied bias for

a silicon diode.
46 By T.VenkataSridhar , ETC
 The diode change instantaneously from the conduction state to
the nonconduction state. However, because of the large number
of minority carriers in each material, the diode current will simply
reverse as shown in Fig. below and stay at this measurable level
for the period of time t (storage time) required for the minority
s

carriers to return to their majority-carrier state in the opposite

material. In essence, the diode will remain in the short-circuit
state with a current I determined by the network parameters.
reverse

Eventually, when this storage phase has passed, the current will
be reduced in level to that associated with the nonconduction
state. This second period of time is denoted by t (transition t

interval). The reverse recovery time is the sum of these two

intervals: t = t + t .
rr s t
Most commercially available
switching diodes have a t in rr

the range of a few

nanoseconds to 1 µs. Units
are available, however, with
a t of only a few hundred
rr

picoseconds (10-12 s).

47 Fig.: Defining the reverse recovery time. By T.VenkataSridhar , ETC
  Zener diodes are semiconductor devices that allow current to flow in both
directions but specialize in current flowing in reverse.

 A Zener diode is a special type of diode designed to reliably allow current to

flow "backwards" (inverted polarity) when a certain set reverse voltage, known
as the Zener voltage, is reached.

 Zener diodes are manufactured with a great variety of Zener voltages, and some
are even variable.

48 By T.VenkataSridhar , ETC
  Some Zener diodes have an abrupt, heavily doped p–n junction with a low
Zener voltage, in which case the reverse conduction occurs due to electron
quantum tunnelling in the short distance between p and n regions − this is
known as the Zener effect, (after the physicist Clarence Zener).
 Diodes with a higher Zener voltage have lighter doped junctions which
causes their mode of operation to involve avalanche breakdown.
 Both breakdown types are present in Zener diodes with the Zener effect
predominating at lower voltages and avalanche breakdown at higher voltages.
 For diodes that are lightly doped, the breakdown is dominated by the
avalanche effect rather than the Zener effect. Consequently, the breakdown
voltage is higher (over 5.6 V) for these devices.
Construction
 The Zener diode's operation depends on the heavy doping of its p–n junction.
 The depletion region formed in the diode is very thin (< 1 μm) and the
electric field is consequently very high (about 500 kV/m).
 Even for a small reverse bias voltage of about 5 V, allowing electrons to
tunnel from the valence band of the p-type material to the conduction band
49 of the n-type material. By T.VenkataSridhar , ETC
  In the case of Zener diodes, this heavy doping creates a situation where the
diode can operate in the breakdown region.
 While tolerances within 0.07% are available, commonly available tolerances
are 5% and 10%. Breakdown voltage for commonly available Zener diodes
can vary from 1.2 V to 200 V with power ratings from ¼ W to 50 W.

Metal
Contacts +
Fig.: Zener diode symbols

Fig.: Zener Diode Construction

50 By T.VenkataSridhar , ETC
 Avalanche Breakdown Zener Breakdown
 As the voltage across the diode  Zener breakdown, will
increases in the reverse-bias contribute to the sharp change
region, the velocity of the in the characteristic.
minority carriers responsible for
the reverse saturation current Is  It occurs because there is a
will also increase. strong electric field in the
region of the junction that can
 Eventually, their velocity and disrupt the bonding forces
associated kinetic energy (WK = within the atom and
½ mv2) will be sufficient to “generate” carriers.
release additional carriers
through collisions with otherwise  Although the Zener breakdown
stable atomic structures. mechanism is a significant
contributor only at lower levels
 That is, an ionization process of VBV (Breakdown Voltage).
will result whereby valence
electrons absorb sufficient  This sharp change in the
energy to leave the parent characteristic at any level is
atom. called the Zener region, and
diodes employing this unique
 These additional carriers can portion of the characteristic of
51 then aid the ionization process a p–n junction areBycalled Zener
T.VenkataSridhar , ETC
 Thin Barrier

52 By T.VenkataSridhar , ETC
 Operation and Characteristics
 The Zener can be operated similar to the PN-Junction diode for
forward and reverse bias but, It would be nice to assume the
Zener diode is ideal with a straight vertical line at the Zener
potential.

 However, there is a slight slope to the characteristics requiring

the piecewise equivalent model appearing in Fig. (in the next
slide) for that region.

 For most of the applications the series resistive element can

be ignored and the reduced equivalent model of just a dc
battery of V volts employed.
Z

 Since some applications of Zener diodes swing between the

Zener region and the forward-bias region, it is important to
understand the operation of the Zener diode in all regions.

 As shown in Fig. (in the next slide), the equivalent model for a
Zener diode in the reverse-bias region below V is a very large
Z

53 resistor (as for the standard diode). For most applications this
By T.VenkataSridhar , ETC
 Fig.: Zener diode characteristics with the equivalent model for each
54 region. By T.VenkataSridhar , ETC
 The test current I is the current defined by the ¼ -power level. It is
ZT

the current that will define the dynamic resistance ZZT and appears
in the general equation for the power rating of the device.

That is,
(11)

55 By T.VenkataSridhar , ETC
 To demonstrate the effect of the temperature coefficient on the Zener potential, let
us see one example.

Substituting into Eq. (12), we obtain

which is not an
56 insignificant change.
By T.VenkataSridhar , ETC
 Fig.: Zener terminal identification and
symbols.

Introduction:

 The increasing use of digital displays in calculators, watches,

and all forms of instrumentation has contributed to an
extensive interest in structures that emit light when properly
biased.

 The two types in common use to perform this function are the
light-emitting diode (LED) and the liquid-crystal display (LCD).
57
The LED falls within the family of p–n junction devices.
By T.VenkataSridhar , ETC
  As the name implies, the light-emitting diode is a diode that
gives off visible or invisible (infrared) light when energized.

 In any forward-biased p–n junction there is, within the structure

and primarily close to the junction, a recombination of holes
and electrons.

 This recombination requires that the energy possessed by the

unbound free electrons be transferred to another state.

 In all semiconductor p–n junctions some of this energy is given

off in the form of heat and some in the form of photons.

 In Si and Ge diodes the greater percentage of the energy converted during

recombination at the junction is dissipated in the form of heat within the
structure, and the emitted light is insignificant.
 For this reason, silicon and germanium are not used in the construction of LED
devices. On the other hand:
 Diodes constructed of GaAs emit light in the infrared (invisible) zone during
58
the recombination process at the p–n junction.
By T.VenkataSridhar , ETC
  Even though the light is not visible, infrared LEDs have
numerous applications elements, visible light is not a desirable
effect.

 Through other combinations of elements, a coherent visible

light can be generated. Table 6 provides a list of common
compound semiconductors and the light they generate. In
addition, the typical range of forward bias potentials for each
is listed.

59 By T.VenkataSridhar , ETC
 Construction and Operation
 The basic construction of
an LED appears in Fig.
beside with the standard
symbol used for the
device.
 The external metallic
conducting surface
connected to the p-type Fig: a) Process of
material is smaller to electroluminesce
nce in the LED;
permit the emergence of (b) graphic
the maximum number of symbol.

 photons of light energy

Note in the figure that the recombination of the injected carriers
when the device is
due to the forward-biased junction results in emitted light at the
forward-biased.
site of the recombination.
 There will, of course, be some absorption of the packages of
photon energy in the structure itself, but a very large
percentage can leave, as shown in the figure.

60 The frequency spectrum for infrared light extends from about
By T.VenkataSridhar , ETC
Example 6 Using Eq. (13), find the range of wavelength for the frequency
range of visible light (400 THz–750 THz)?

λ = c/f => 3 x 108(m/s)/400THz

=> 3 x 108(m/s)/400 x 1012Hz
=> (¾) x 108 x10-12 x 10-2 (m)/(s)(Hz) => 0.75 x 10-6 m = 750 nm. Similarly,
λ = c/f => 3 x 108(m/s)/750THz
=> 3 x 108(m/s)/750 x 1012Hz
=> (3/7.5) x 108 x10-12 x 10-2 (m)/(s)(Hz) => 0.4 x 10-6 m = 400 nm.
61 By T.VenkataSridhar , ETC
 The response of the average human eye as provided in Fig. below
extends from about 350 nm to 800 nm with a peak near 550
nm.

FIG: Standard response

curve of the human eye,
showing the eye’s response
to light energy peaks at
green and falls off for blue
and red.
62 By T.VenkataSridhar , ETC
Load-Line Analysis (TBS)
The circuit of Fig. below is the simplest of diode
configurations. It will be used to describe the analysis of a diode
circuit using its actual characteristics.

FIG: Series diode configuration: (a) circuit; (b)

characteristics.
63 By T.VenkataSridhar , ETC
 By applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law in the clockwise direction to
the above circuit, which results in

(14)

If we set V = 0 V in Eq. (14) and solve for I , we have the magnitude of I

D D D

on the vertical axis. Therefore, with V = 0 V, Eq. (14) becomes

D

(15)

If we set I = 0 A in Eq. (14) and solve for V , we have the magnitude of

D D

V on the horizontal axis. Therefore, with I = 0 A, Eq. (14) becomes

D D

(16)
64 By T.VenkataSridhar , ETC
 We now have a load line defined by the network and a
characteristic curve defined by the device. The point of
intersection between the two is the point of operation for this
circuit. By simply drawing a line down to the horizontal axis, we
can determine the diode voltage V , whereas a horizontal line
DQ

from the point of intersection to the vertical axis will provide the
level of I .
DQ

65 FIG: Drawing the load line and finding the point of

By T.VenkataSridhar , ETC
operation.
 Example 7: For the series diode configuration of Fig. a, employing the
diode characteristics
of Fig. b, determine:

a. V and I .
DQ DQ

b. V .
R

66 By T.VenkataSridhar , ETC
  The simplest of networks to examine with a time-varying signal appears in Fig.,
below. Over one full cycle, defined by the period T of Fig. below, the average
value (the algebraic sum of the areas above and below the axis) is zero.

 The circuit of Fig., below, called a half-wave rectifier, will generate a waveform
vo that will have an average value of particular use in the ac-to-dc conversion
67
process. By T.VenkataSridhar , ETC
 During the interval t = 0 to T/2 the polarity of the applied voltage v i is such as to
establish “pressure” in the direction indicated and turn on the diode with the
polarity appearing above the diode. Substituting the short-circuit equivalence for
the ideal diode will result in the equivalent circuit where it is fairly obvious that
the output signal is an exact replica of the applied signal. (positive peak) as
shown below.

 For the period T/2 to T, the polarity of the input vi is reversed, and the resulting
polarity across the ideal diode produces an “off” state with an open-circuit
equivalent. The result is the absence of a path for charge to flow, and v o = iR =
68 By T.VenkataSridhar , ETC
(0)R = 0 V for the period T/2 to T.
69 By T.VenkataSridhar , ETC
 (17)

The process of removing one-half the

70 input signal to establish a dc level is By T.VenkataSridhar , ETC
  The effect of using a silicon diode with V K= 0.7 V is
demonstrated in Fig., below for the forward-bias region.
 The applied signal must now be at least 0.7 V before the diode
can turn “on.” For levels of v less than 0.7 V, the diode is still
i

in an open-circuit state and v = 0 V, as shown in the same

o

figure.
 When conducting, the difference between v and v is a fixed
o i

level of VK = 0.7 V and vo = vi - VK, as shown in the figure. For

situations where Vm >> VK, the following equation can be
(18)
applied to determine the average value with a relatively high
level of accuracy.

71 By T.VenkataSridhar , ETC
 a. In this situation the diode will conduct during the negative part of the input as
shown in Fig. below, and vo will appear as shown in the same figure. For the full
period, the dc level is

The negative sign indicates that the polarity of the output is opposite to the
72 By T.VenkataSridhar , ETC
defined polarity of Fig. in the problem given.
73 By T.VenkataSridhar , ETC
  The peak inverse voltage (PIV) [or PRV (peak reverse voltage)] rating of the
diode is of primary importance in the design of rectification systems.

 Recall that it is the voltage rating that must not be exceeded in the reverse-bias
region or the diode will enter the Zener avalanche region.

 The required PIV rating for the half-wave rectifier can be determined from
Fig. below, which displays the reverse-biased diode with maximum applied
voltage.

 Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law, it is fairly obvious that the PIV rating of
the diode must equal or exceed the peak value of the applied voltage.
Therefore, (19)

74 Fig.: Determining the required PIV rating for the half-

By T.VenkataSridhar , ETC
wave rectifier.
 The dc level obtained from a sinusoidal input can be improved 100% (ideal)
using a process called full-wave rectification. The most familiar network for
performing such a function appears in Fig. (a) below with its four diodes in a
bridge configuration.

75 By T.VenkataSridhar , ETC
 During the period t = 0 to T/2 the polarity of the input is as shown in Fig. (b).

 The resulting polarities across the ideal diodes are also shown in Fig. (b) to
reveal that D2 and D3 are conducting, whereas D1 and D4 are in the “off”
state.
 The net result is the
configuration of Fig. (c),
with its indicated current
and polarity across R.

 Since the diodes are ideal,

the load voltage is vo = vi,
as shown in the same
76 figure. By T.VenkataSridhar , ETC
 For the negative region of the input the conducting diodes are D1 and D4,
resulting in the configuration of Fig. (d). The important result is that the polarity
across the load resistor R is the same as in Fig. (b), establishing a second positive
pulse, as shown in Fig. (d).

 Over one full cycle

the input and output
voltages will appear
as shown in Fig. (e).

77 By T.VenkataSridhar , ETC
78 By T.VenkataSridhar , ETC
79 By T.VenkataSridhar , ETC
80 By T.VenkataSridhar , ETC
 A second popular full-
wave rectifier appears in
Fig. beside.

 This contains only two

diodes but requiring a
center-tapped (CT)
transformer to establish
the input signal across
each section of the
81 secondary of the By T.VenkataSridhar , ETC
  During the positive portion of v applied to the primary of the
i

transformer, the network will appear as shown in Fig. below

with a positive pulse across each section of the secondary coil.

 D assumes the short-circuit equivalent and D the open-circuit

1 2

equivalent, as determined by the secondary voltages and the

resulting current directions. The output voltage appears as
shown in Fig.

82 By T.VenkataSridhar , ETC
  During the negative portion of the input the network appears
as shown in Fig. below, reversing the roles of the diodes but
maintaining the same polarity for the voltage across the load
resistor R.

 The net effect is the same output as that appearing in Fig. of

bridge full-wave rectifier output with the same dc levels.

83 By T.VenkataSridhar , ETC
  The half-wave rectifier is an example of the simplest form of
diode clipper—one Diode Applications resistor and a diode.
Depending on the orientation of the diode, the positive or
84 negative region of the applied signal is “clipped” off.
By T.VenkataSridhar , ETC
 There are two general categories of clippers: series and parallel.
The series configuration is defined as one where the diode is in
series with the load, whereas the parallel variety has the diode
in a branch parallel to the load.

 The response of the series configuration of Fig.a to a variety of alternating

waveforms is provided in Fig.b.

FIG: Series clipper.

 Although first introduced as a half-wave rectifier (for sinusoidal waveforms),

there are no boundaries on the type of signals that can be applied to a clipper.
85 By T.VenkataSridhar , ETC
 Addition of a DC
 The addition of a dc supply
to the network as shown in
Fig. rt.side can have a
pronounced effect on the
analysis of the series-clipper
configuration.

 The response is not as obvious because the dc supply can aid or work against
the source voltage, and the dc supply can be in the leg between the supply and
output or in the branch parallel to the output.

 There is no general procedure for analyzing networks such as the type in Fig.
above, but there are some things one can do to give the analysis some direction.

 1. Take careful note of where the output voltage is defined.

 2. Try to develop an overall sense of the response by simply noting the

“pressure” established by each supply and the effect it will have on the
conventional current direction through the diode.
86 By T.VenkataSridhar , ETC
 3. Determine the applied voltage (transition voltage) that will result in a change
of state for the diode from the “off” to the “on” state.

 4. It is often helpful to draw the output waveform directly below the applied
voltage using the same scales for the horizontal axis and the vertical axis.

FIG. Using the transition

voltage to
define the “on” and “off”
regions.

FIG. Sketching the waveform of v using o

FIG. Determining v for the diode the results obtained for v above and
o
o

87 in the “on” state. below the transition level.By T.VenkataSridhar , ETC

  The network of Fig. below is the simplest of parallel diode
configurations with the output for the same inputs of Fig. series
clipper. The analysis of parallel configurations is very similar to
that applied to series configurations, as demonstrated in the
next example.

88 By T.VenkataSridhar , ETC
89 By T.VenkataSridhar , ETC
90 By T.VenkataSridhar , ETC
91 By T.VenkataSridhar , ETC
 Summary-Clipping circuits.

92 By T.VenkataSridhar , ETC
93 By T.VenkataSridhar , ETC
  Additional shifts can also be obtained by introducing a dc supply to the basic
structure.

 The chosen resistor and capacitor of the network must be chosen such that the
time constant determined by τ = RC is sufficiently large to ensure that the
voltage across the capacitor does not discharge significantly during the
interval the diode is nonconducting.

 Throughout the analysis generally assume that for all practical purposes the
capacitor fully charges or discharges in five time-constants (5τ).

 The simplest of clamper networks is provided in Fig. below slide.

 It is important to note that the capacitor is connected directly between input,

output signals and the resistor, and the diode are connected in parallel with the
output signal.
94 By T.VenkataSridhar , ETC
 Clamping networks have a capacitor connected directly from
input to output with a resistive element in parallel with the
output signal. The diode is also in parallel with the output
signal but may or may not have a series dc supply as an added
element.
Analysis:

Step 1: Start the analysis by examining the response of the

portion of the input signal that will forward bias the diode.

Step 2: During the period that the diode is in the “on” state,
assume that the capacitor will charge up instantaneously to a
95 voltage level determined by the surrounding network.
By T.VenkataSridhar , ETC
 For the network of Fig. of clamper in the above slide, the diode will
be forward biased for the positive portion of the applied signal. For
the interval 0 to T/2 the network will appear as shown in Fig.
below.

Fig. Diode “on” and

the capacitor charging
to V volts.

Step 3: Assume that during the period when the diode is in the “off” state the
capacitor holds on to its established voltage level.

Step 4: Throughout the analysis, maintain a continual awareness of the location

and defined polarity for vo to ensure that the proper levels are obtained.

96 By T.VenkataSridhar , ETC
 When the input switches to the -V state, the network will appear as shown in
Fig. just above, with the open-circuit equivalent for the diode determined by the
applied signal and stored voltage across the capacitor—both “pressuring”
current through the diode from cathode to anode.

 Now that R is back in the network the time constant determined by the RC
product is sufficiently large to establish a discharge period 5τ, much greater
than the period T/2T, and it can be assumed on an approximate basis that the
capacitor holds onto all its charge and, therefore, voltage (since V = Q/C)
during this period.

 Since vo is in parallel with the diode and resistor, it can also be

drawn in the alternative position shown in Fig. above. Applying
Kirchhoff’s voltage law around the input loop results in
-V - V - vo = 0
and vo = -2V

 The negative sign results from the fact that the polarity of 2V is opposite to the
polarity defined for vo .The resulting output waveform appears in Fig. below
slide with the input signal. The output signal is clamped to 0 V for the interval 0
97
to T/2 but maintains the same total swing (2V) as the input. By T.VenkataSridhar , ETC
 Step 5: Check that the total swing of
the output matches that of the input.

 This is a property that applies for all

clamping networks, giving an
excellent check on the results
obtained.

Example: Determine v for the network

o

of Fig. below for the input indicated.

98 By T.VenkataSridhar , ETC
Solution:
 Note that the frequency is 1000 Hz, resulting in a period of 1 ms and
an interval of 0.5 ms between levels.

 The analysis will begin with the period t  t of the input signal since the
1 2

diode is in its short-circuit state. For this interval the network will
appear as shown in Fig. below.

 The output is across R, but it is also directly across the 5-V battery if
one follows the direct connection between the defined terminals for v o

and the battery terminals.

 The result is v = 5 V for this interval. Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law

o

around the input loop results in -20 V + VC - 5 V = 0

 and VC = 25 V

 The capacitor will therefore charge up to 25 V. In this case the resistor R is not shorted
99 out by the diode, but a Thévenin equivalent circuit of that portion Byof T.VenkataSridhar
the network that, ETC
  The open-circuit equivalent for the diode removes the 5-V
battery from having any effect on v , and applying Kirchhoff’s
o

voltage law around the outside loop of the network results in

 +10 V + 25 V - v = 0o

 and v = 35 o

 The time constant of the discharging network of Fig. above is determined by

the product RC and has the magnitude.
10 By T.VenkataSridhar , ETC
0
10 By T.VenkataSridhar , ETC
1
 Summary-Clamping circuits.

10 By T.VenkataSridhar , ETC
2
 Zener Diode Physical Operation (TBS-Begin)

10
3 By T.VenkataSridhar , ETC
10
4 By T.VenkataSridhar , ETC
 Vi and RL fixed
The simplest of Zener diode regulator networks appears in Fig. 112. The
applied dc voltage is fixed, as is the load resistor. The analysis can fundamentally
be broken down into two steps.

10
5 By T.VenkataSridhar , ETC
 The Zener diode current must be
determined by an application of Kirchhoff’s
current law. That is,

Since V = 8.73 V is less than V Z = 10 V, the

diode is in the “off” state. Substituting the open-circuit
equivalent results in the same network, where we find that
10
6 By T.VenkataSridhar , ETC
 b. Applying Eq. results in

10
7 By T.VenkataSridhar , ETC
10
8 By T.VenkataSridhar , ETC
10
9 By T.VenkataSridhar , ETC
11
0 By T.VenkataSridhar , ETC
11
1 By T.VenkataSridhar , ETC
11
2
(TBS-End) By T.VenkataSridhar , ETC
Zener Diode Applications
Recap:
 The Zener diode is a type of diode and the basic difference between a simple
PN diode, and a Zener diode is the level of doping in semiconductor materials.

 The doping level of semiconductor material is controlled during the

manufacturing process.

 The Zener diodes have a high level of doping which also contributes to their
specifications to operate at different levels of voltages.

 Due to this high level of doping, the

depletion layer of PN-junction is thin
compared to the PN junction of a simple
diode.

 This gives special characteristics to the Zener

diode to operate in the reverse direction.
11
3 By T.VenkataSridhar , ETC
 ZENER AS VOLTAGE
REGULATOR:
 The most common use of a Zener diode is in power supplies as a voltage
regulator.
 A voltage regulator is an electronic circuit that provides a stable DC voltage
independent of the load current, temperature and AC line voltage variations.
 At Zener Breakdown and beyond in reverse direction, the voltage drop i.e.
Zener Voltage (VZ) remains constant and any variation in applied voltage does
not cause any change in it.
 A reverse-biased Zener diode in series with a current limiting resistor supplies
a constant voltage to loads connected parallel to it. The load voltage remains
equal to Zener Voltage (VZ).
 If, VIN < VZ

 Vo =

 Else VIN ≥ VZ

11
 Vo = Vz
4 By T.VenkataSridhar , ETC
 ZENER DIODE CLIPPER (NON IDEAL)

 In the following diagram, a Zener diode is used to clip both cycles.

 However, the negative cycle clipping is somewhat limited to the forward

voltage drop.

 The Zener diode conducts below this forward voltage drop during negative
cycles and above Zener voltage (VZ) during positive cycles.

Fig: Positive cycle Zener diode clipping circuit

11
5 By T.VenkataSridhar , ETC
  In the following figure, a full-wave clipper based on two Zener diodes is
shown.

Fig: Positive and negative cycles Zener diode clipping circuit

 In this circuit, both cycles get limited to Zener voltages (VZ) of their respective
Zener diodes.

 Simply, the ZD1 limits positive cycles, and ZD2 limits negative cycles to VZ1 and
VZ2, respectively.
11
6 By T.VenkataSridhar , ETC
Light Emitting Diode Applications
Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs) have many applications, including lighting, displays, and
indicators.
Lighting
Automotive lighting: LEDs are used brake lights, turn signals etc.
Street lighting: LEDs are used in parking garages and on poles.
Healthcare lighting: LEDs are used in hospitals for surgical lamps, medical equipment
lights, and sterilization.
Aviation lighting: LEDs are used to replace conventional fittings in aircraft cabins.
Stage and studio lighting: LEDs are used for lighting on stage and in studios.
Displays
Backlighting: LEDs are used for backlighting in TVs and smartphones.
LED displays: LEDs are used for numeric and alphanumeric displays.
Video displays: RGB LEDs are used in video displays.
Indicators
Status indicators: LEDs are used for status indicators.
Traffic signals: LEDs are used for traffic signals.
Sign boards: LEDs are used for sign boards. 
11
7 By T.VenkataSridhar , ETC
11
8 By T.VenkataSridhar , ETC
 Some of the primary concerns of using electric light bulbs in exit
signs are their limited lifetime (requiring frequent replacement);
their sensitivity to heat, fire, and so on; the durability factor when
catastrophic accidents occur; and their high voltage and power
requirements. For this reason, LEDs are often used to provide the
longer life span, higher durability levels, and lower demand voltage
and power levels (especially when the reserve dc battery system
must take over). In below figure a control network determines
when the EXIT light should be on.

11
9 By T.VenkataSridhar , ETC
 End of Module-1 (As per the syllabus)

? (Any doubts)

12
0 By T.VenkataSridhar , ETC
 Further Refer
Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory.
By
Robert L. Boylstad, Louis Nashelsky.

Electronic Devices and Circuits or

Integrated Electronics.
By
Jacob Millman, Christos C Halkias.

12
UP
1 By T.VenkataSridhar , ETC