UNIT IV

ENERGY CONVERSIONS AND

STORAGE
UNIT IV ENERGY CONVERSIONS AND STORAGE

Nuclear fission - controlled nuclear fission - nuclear fusion -

differences between nuclear fission and fusion - nuclear
chain reactions - nuclear energy - light water nuclear power
plant – fast breeder reactor. Solar energy conversion - solar
cells. Wind energy. Batteries - types of batteries – primary
battery (dry cell), secondary battery (lead acid, nickel-
cadmium and lithium-ion-battery). Fuel cells – H2-O2 and
microbial fuel cell. Explosives – classification, examples:
TNT, RDX, Dynamite; Rocket fuels and propellants–
definition and uses.
Types of Energy resources
 NUCLEAR ENERGY
 Nuclearenergy is the energy that binds the protons and neutrons
together in the nucleus (core) of an atom. Sometimes, a big nucleus splits
into two smaller ones, releasing energy in the process. This process is
called nuclear fission. The energy released is converted into heat, which
can be used to drive a turbine and generate electricity.

 Nuclear energy is a clean, safe, reliable and competitive energy source. It

is the only source of energy that can replace a significant part of the fossil
fuels (coal, oil and gas) which massively pollute the atmosphere and
contribute to the greenhouse effect.

 Inburning fossil fuels, we inject 23 billion tons of carbon dioxide every

year into the atmosphere – 730 tons per second. Half of it is absorbed in
the seas and vegetation, but half remains in the atmosphere. This is
significantly altering the composition of the atmosphere and seriously
affecting the climate of our planet.
TYPES OF NUCLEAR REACTIONS
Nuclear Fission
It is the nuclear reaction in which heavy
isotopes are split into lighter nuclei on
bombardment by neutrons. Fission reaction of
U235 is given below:
235 1 92 141 1
92 U +0n ⎯⎯→36Kr +56 Ba +3 0 n +energy
Nuclear Fission

 Fission is not a spontaneous process. It can only occur when a slow moving neutron
strikes an unstable nucleus.

 Inthis decay process, the nucleus will split into two nearly equal nuclei and release
several free neutrons and huge amounts of energy.

 These nuclei are isotopes of more stable elements. If left alone, they decay
radioactively by emitting alpha or beta particles.

 On average, three neutrons are released. These can go on to be absorbed by other

nuclei if they are slowed down by a moderator (a medium, such as graphite, heavy
water, and beryllium that causes the neutrons to travel more slowly).
Nuclear Fission

 If these neutrons are absorbed by other nuclei, this causes a chain reaction.

 For the chain reaction to occur there has to be a critical mass.

 For uranium, this is about the size of a tennis ball. The critical mass has a
mass of about

 15 kg (uranium has a very high density, 19 g/cm3). Anything less, the

neutrons escape without setting off a chain reaction.

 If the chain reaction is not controlled, a nuclear explosion will occur.

NUCLEAR CHAIN REACTIONS
CONTROLLED AND UNCONTROLLED CHAIN REACTIONS
CONTROLLED AND UNCONTROLLED CHAIN REACTIONS

Controlled chain reactions are carried out in a

controlled manner by using control rods. It
can be used for constructive purpose.
Example: Nuclear reactor

Uncontrolled chain reactions are carried out

in an uncontrolled manner. Due to this an
enormous amount of energy can be released.
It can be used for destructive purpose.
Example: Atom bomb.
Nuclear Fusion

 Process of combination of lighter nuclei into

heavier nucleus with simultaneous liberation of
large amount of energy.
(e.g) solar system.

2 2 4
1 H + 1H ⎯ ⎯→ 2He + energy
Nuclear fusion reaction occurs in sun.
• When fusion happens, the products have a larger binding energy
than the reactants. The mass defect results in the release of huge
amounts of energy.
• Actually produces more energy per gram of products than fission
and produces no by-products.

Why isn’t it used yet then for energy production?

It currently requires more energy to initiate the reaction than it produces.
Heat produced is so intense that containment vessels melt.
Why does fusion require energy?

 To combine, two nuclei must be close enough for the strong nuclear force to join them.

 But when the positive nuclei approach, the electrostatic force of repulsion is greater than the
nuclear force. This means that the nuclei must be HIGHLY energetic to overcome the
repulsion force.
 This means HIGH temperatures (millions of degrees Celsius), which is difficult to achieve
while containing the atoms.
 Nuclear fusion is the energy-producing process taking place in the core of the Sun and stars.

 The core temperature of the Sun is about 15 million °C. At these temperatures, four
hydrogen atoms fuse in a series of reactions to form a single helium atom and give off huge
amounts of energy.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN FISSION AND FUSION REACTION

S.No Nuclear fission Nuclear fusion

It is a process of breaking a heavier It is a process of combination of lighter nuclei.
1.
nucleons.

2. It emits radioactive rays It does not emit any kind of radioactive rays
The mass number and atomic number The mass number and atomic number of product
3.
of new elements are lower. is higher than that of starting elements

4. It occurs at ordinary temperature It occurs at high temperature

5. It gives rise to chain reaction It does not give rise to chain reaction

6. It emits neutrons It emits positrons

7. It can be controlled It cannot be controlled

 NUCLEAR CHAIN REACTIONS
A nuclear chain reaction occurs when one nuclear reaction
causes on the average one or more nuclear reactions, thus
leading to a self-propagating number of these reactions. The
specific nuclear reaction may be: the fission of heavy isotopes
(e.g. 235 U) or the fusion of light isotopes (e.g. H and H)
2 3
NUCLEAR CHAIN REACTIONS - Fission
The production of 2-3 neutrons in each fission event makes it possible to use fission chain
reactions for the production of energy.

A schematic nuclear fission chain reaction

1. A uranium-235 atom absorbs a neutron and fissions into two new atoms (fission
fragments), releasing three new neutrons and some binding energy.

2. One of these neutrons is absorbed by an atom of uranium-238 and does not continue
the reaction.

Another neutron is simply lost and does not collide with anything, also not continuing the
reaction. However one neutron does collide with an atom of uranium-235, which then fissions
and releases two neutrons and some binding energy.
3. Both of these neutrons collide with uranium-235 atoms, each of which fissions and
releases between one and three neutrons, which can then continue the reaction.
Mean Generation Time Λ is the average time from a neutron
emission to a capture that results in a fission Λ =10−7−10−8 c

80th generation in 10-5−10-6 c: during this time 280=1024 neutrons are

produced which lead to

¾ the fission of 1024 nuclei (140 g) of 235U

¾ = release of 3.1013 Watt of energy (1W=1J/c, 1 eV =

1.602.10−19 J)

¾ which is equivalent to 1000 tonnes of oil.

Controlled chain reactions are possible with the isotopes 235U, 233U and 239Pu.

• The chemical element isotopes that can sustain a fission chain reaction are called
nuclear fuels, and are said to be fissile.

• The most common nuclear fuels are 235U (the isotope of uranium with an atomic mass
of 235 and of use in nuclear reactors) and 239Pu (the isotope of plutonium with an
atomic mass of 239).

The effective neutron multiplication factor, k, is the average number of neutrons from
one fission that causes another fission.

k= number of neutrons in one generation

number of neutrons in proceeding generation
Fission chain reaction chain reactions are used
• Nuclear power plants operate by precisely controlling the rate at which nuclear reactions
occur, and that control is maintained through the use of several redundant layers of safety
measures. Moreover, the materials in a nuclear reactor core and the uranium enrichment
level make a nuclear explosion impossible, even if all safety measures failed.
• Nuclear weapons are specifically engineered to produce a reaction that is so fast and
intense that it cannot be controlled after it has started. When properly designed, this
1uncontrolled reaction can lead to an explosive energy release.

NUCLEAR ENERGY

The enormous amount of energy released during the nuclear fission is due to the loss in
some mass. During nuclear fission, the sum of the masses of the products formed is slightly less
than the sum of masses oftarget species and bombarding neutron. The loss in mass gets converted
into energy according to Einsteins equation
Nuclear reactor
Nuclear reactor is a device for carrying out the fission reaction under controlled
conditions. The liberated energy can be utilized for the generation of electricity.
 Components of a nuclear reactor
Reactor core is a principal component of any nuclear reactor. Fission reaction is made to
occur at this point under controlled conditions. It consists of following parts.
◦ (i) Fuel elements
It is the fissionable materials (free from impurities, chemically stable) used in nuclear reactors for
producing electricity by the fission reaction.
Example: UO2, UC2
◦ (ii) Control rods
The control rods are useful in controlling fission process in designed manner, by absorbing extra
neutrons.
Example: 113Cd, 10 B
◦ (iii) Coolant
It is useful in transmitting the heat generated during fission process.. It should have a high
thermal conductivity, stable, non-toxic and non-corrosive.
Example: Heavy water , Liquid sodium, Benzene, CO2(g), He(g)
◦ (iv) Moderator
It is useful in reducing the speed of the fast moving neutrons in the reactor, should have good
thermal and chemical stability. Therefore designed process will continue without any hazard.
Example: Heavy water, Graphite, Beryllium.
 Components of a nuclear reactor

2. Reflector is surrounded by a neutron reflector which reflects back some of the neutrons
that escape from the surface of the core.

Example: H2O, D2O, Graphite

3. Pressure vessel can withstand the pressure as high as 200 kg/cm 2. it encloses the
reactor core and the reflector, provides the entrance and the exit passages the coolants.

4. Shielding is enclosed in thick concrete shield (50 to 60 cm thick). It absorbs much of the
gamma rays and becomes heated.

5. Heat exchanger transfers the heat liberated from the reactor core to boil water and get
steam about 500 kg/cm2.

6. Turbine, the steam generated at high pressure is used to operate a steam turbine. When
the steam turbine rotates, the coil of an electric generator also rotates, the coil of an electric
generator also rotates and produce electricity.
NUCLEAR REACTOR
Light Water Nuclear Power plant
Light water nuclear power plant is one in which U235 feel rods are
submerged in water. Here the water acts as coolant and moderator.
• The fission reaction is controlled by inserting or removing the
control rods
of B10
automatically from the spaces I between the fuel rods

• The heat emitted by U235 in the fuel core is absorbed by the coolant

• Heat is transferred to sea water and then converted into steam.

• The steam then drives the turbines, generating electricity.

Structure of light water nuclear power plant
 Breeder Reactor

A nuclear reactor with conversion or multiplication factor greater than one is a breeder reactor.
A breeder reactor generates fissionable nuclei from fertile nuclei. E.g., the fertile material like
uranium-238 is converted into fissile94Pu239 by using slow neutrons. Pu 94
239
undergoes fission
and produces energy.

238 1 239 −
92 U +0 n ⎯⎯
→ 94 Pu +2e

239 1
94 U +0 ⎯⎯
n →Fission +Energy
• A breeder reactor is a nuclear reactor that generates new fissile or fissionable material at a
greater rate than it consumes such material. These reactors were initially (1940s and 1960s)
considered appealing due to their superior fuel economy; a normal reactor is able to consume
less than 1% of the natural uranium that begins the fuel cycle, whereas a breeder can utilize a
much greater percentage of the initial fissionable material, and with re-processing, can use
almost all of the initial fissionable material.
• Breeders can be designed to utilize thorium, which is more abundant than uranium. Currently,
there is renewed interest in breeders because they would consume less natural uranium (less
than 3% compared to conventional light-water reactors), and generate less waste, for equal
amounts of energy, by converting non-fissile isotopes of uranium into nuclear fuel.
• Production of fissile material in a reactor occurs by neutron irradiation of fertile material,
particularly uranium-238 and thorium-232.
• In a breeder reactor, these materials are deliberately provided, either in the fuel or in a
breeder blanket surrounding the core, or most commonly in both.
• Production of fissile material takes place to some extent in the fuel of all current commercial
nuclear power reactors. Towards the end of its life, a uranium PWR fuel element is producing
more power from the fission of plutonium than from the remaining uranium-235. Historically,
in order to be called a breeder, a reactor must be specifically designed to create more fissile
material than it consumes.
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION

 Inancient times, wood was the most common source of heat energy.
The energy of flowing water and wind was also used for limited
activities. Can you think of some of these uses? The exploitation of coal
as a source of energy made the industrial revolution possible. Increasing
industrialization has led to a better quality of life all over the world. It
has also caused the global demand for energy to grow at a tremendous
rate. The growing demand for energy was largely met by the fossil fuels
– coal and petroleum.

 Ourtechnologies were also developed for using these energy sources.

But these fuels were formed over millions of years ago and there are
only limited reserves. The fossil fuels are non-renewable sources of
energy, so we need to conserve them. If we were to continue consuming
these sources at such alarming rates, we would soon run out of energy!
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION

 In
order to avoid this, alternate sources of energy were explored. But
we continue to be largely dependent on fossil fuels for most of our
energy requirements.

 Energy development is increasingly dominated by major global

concerns of over- population, air pollution, fresh water pollution,
coastal pollution, deforestation, biodiversity loss, and global climate
deterioration. To prevent disastrous global consequences, it would
increasingly be impossible to engage in large-scale energy-related
activities without insuring their sustainability, even for developing
countries in which there is a perceived priority of energy
development and use and power generation over their impact on the
environment, society, and indeed on the energy sources themselves.
Solar Cells

A device which converts the solar energy (energy obtained from

the sun) directly into electrical energy is called ‘Solar cell’. This
is also called as ‘Photovoltaic cell’.

Principle

The basic principle involved in the solar cells is based on the

photovoltaic (PV) effect. When sun rays fall on the two layers of
semiconductor devices, potential difference between the two layers is
produced. This potential difference causes flow of electrons and thus
produces electricity.

Example: Silicon solar cell

Construction
Solar cell consists of a p-type (such as Si doped with boron) and an n-type (such
as Si doped with phosphorous) semiconductor plates. They are in close contact
with each other.
Working

When the solar rays fall on the top layer of p-type semiconductor, the electrons from the
valence band get promoted to the conduction band and cross the p-n junction into n-type
semiconductor. Thereby potential difference between two layers is created, which causes flow
of electrons (i.e. electric current). The potential difference and hence current increases as
more solar rays falls on the surface of the top layer. Thus, when this p- and n- layers are
connected to an external circuit, electrons flow from n-layer to p-layer and hence current is
generated.

Applications of Solar Cells

(i) Solar cells are used in street lights.

(ii) Water pumps are operated by using solar batteries.
(iii) They are used in calculators, watches, radios and TVs.
(iv) They are used for eco-friendly driving vehicles.
(v) Silicon Solar cells are used as power source in space crafts and satellites.
(vi) Solar cells can even be used in remote places and in forests to get electrical energy
without affecting the atmosphere.
Wind Energy

Moving air is called wind. Energy recovered from the forces

of wind is called wind energy.

Wind power is the conversion of wind energy into a useful

form, such as electricity, using wind turbines. At the end of
2008, worldwide nameplate capacity of wind-powered
generators was 121.2 gigawatts (GW).

Wind turbines produce electricity by using the natural power

of the wind to drive a generator.
Wind Energy
Moving air is called wind. Energy recovered from the forces of wind is called
wind energy.
 Wind power is the conversion of wind energy into a useful form, such as electricity, using wind
turbines. At the end of 2008, worldwide nameplate capacity of wind-powered generators was 121.2
gigawatts (GW).
 Wind turbines produce electricity by using the natural power of the wind to drive a generator.
 The wind is a clean and sustainable fuel source, it does not create emissions and it will

never run out as it is constantly replenished by energy from the sun.

 In many ways, wind turbines are the natural evolution of traditional windmills, but now typically have
three blades, which rotate around a horizontal hub at the top of a steel tower.
 Most wind turbines start generating electricity at wind speeds of around 3-4 metres per second
(m/s), (8 miles per hour); generate maximum ‘rated’ power at around 15 m/s (30mph); and shut
down to prevent storm damage at 25 m/s or above (50mph).
Wind Energy
Working

 Generating electricity from the wind is simple: Wind passes over the
blades exerting a turning force. The rotating blades turn a shaft inside
the nacelle, which goes into a gearbox.
 The gearbox increases the rotation speed for the generator, which uses
magnetic fields to convert the rotational energy into electrical energy.
 The power output goes to a transformer, which converts the electricity
from the generator at around 700 Volts (V) to the right voltage for the
distribution system, typically between 11 kV and 132 kV.
 The regional electricity distribution networks or National Grid transmit
the electricity around the country, and on into homes and businesses.
Wind Energy - Components of a typical wind turbine
Wind Energy
Advantages
(i) It is cheap and economical.
(ii) It is renewable
(iii) It does not cause pollution.

Disadvantages
(i) They produce noise.
(ii) Wind farms erected on the migratory routes of birds
create problems.
(iii) Wind turbines interfere with electromagnetic signals.
STORAGE DEVICES
BATTERIES

Battery is a device that stores chemical energy and releases it

as electrical energy. Hence a device which converts chemical
energy into electrical energy is called battery, cell, or storage
battery.

A battery is an electrochemical cell which is often connected in

series in electrical devices as a source of direct electric current
at a constant voltage. A cell contains one anode and one
cathode. The emf of a single cell is around 2 volt. A battery
contains several anode and cathode. The emf of a battery
which contains six anodes and six cathodes is around 12V.
STORAGE DEVICES
BATTERIES: Batteries are classified as follows:

(i) Primary battery

(ii) Secondary battery and

(iii) Fuel battery or Flow battery

Primary Battery

Primary battery is a cell in which the cell reaction is not reversible. Thus, once the
chemical reaction takes place to release the electrical energy, the cell gets
exhausted. They are use and throw type.

Example: Dry cell, Leclanche cell etc.

STORAGE DEVICES – BATTERIES

Dry Cell or Leclanche’s Cell

A cell without fluid component is called as dry cell. Example: Daniel

Cell, Alkaline Battery.

Construction and Working

The anode of the cell is zinc container containing an electrolyte

consisting of NH4Cl, ZnCl2 and MnO2 to which starch is added to
make it thick paste-like so that is less likely to leak. A graphite rod
serves as the cathode, which is immersed in the electrolyte in the
centre of the cell.
The dry cell is a primary battery, since no reaction is reversible by supplying
electricity. Dry cell is very cheap to make. It gives voltage of about 1.5 V.
Advantages : (i) When current is drawn rapidly, drop in voltage occurs.
(ii) Since the electrolyte is acidic, Zn dissolves slowly even if it is not in use.
Uses : Dry cells are used in flash-lights, transistor radios, calculators, etc.,
 Secondary Battery

Secondary battery is a cell in which the cell reaction is reversible. They are rechargeable
cells. Once the battery gets exhausted, it can be recharged.

Example: Nickel-Cadmium cell, Lead-acid cell (storage cell), etc.

Lead–Acid Storage Cell

The typical example for storage cell is Lead-acid storage cell. A secondary battery can
operate as a voltaic cell and as an electrolytic cell. When it acts as a voltaic cell, it supplies
electrical energy and becomes run down. When it is recharged, the cell operates as an
electrochemical cell.

Construction and Working

A lead – acid storage cell consists of a number of voltaic cells (3 to 6) connected in series
to get 6 to 12 V battery. In each cell, a number of Pb plates, used as anodes are connected in
parallel and a number of PbO2 plates, used as cathodes are connected in parallel. The plates are
separated by insulators like rubber or glass fibre. The entire combination is immersed in 20%
dil.H2SO4.
The cell is represented as:

Pb | PbSO4 || H2SO4 || PbSO4 | PbO2 | Pb

When the lead-acid storage battery operates, the following cell reactions occur.
LEAD-ACID STORAGE BATTERY

Anodic Reaction
Oxidation reaction takes place at anode. The electrons are released from anode. Hence
the anode is called as negative anode and is represented as (-). Lead is oxidized to Pb2+ ions and
gives two electron, which further combines with S O 4 2 - to form insoluble PbSO4

P b ( s ) +S O 24− ⎯⎯
→PbSO4( s ) +2 e−

Cathodic Reaction
Reduction takes place at cathode. Hence the cathode is called as positive cathode and is
2+ 2−
represented as (+). PbO2 is reduced to Pb ions, which further combines with SO 4 to form
insoluble PbSO4.

P b O 2 ( s ) +4 H + +S O 24− +2 e − ⎯⎯
→PbSO4 ( s ) +2H2O
LEAD-ACID STORAGE BATTERY

Overall cell reaction during discharging

d ischarg ing
Pb(s) +PbO 2 (s) +2H 2 SO 4 (aq) ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯→PbSO 4 (s) +2H 2 O +energy
From the above cell reactions, it is clear that PbSO4 is precipitated at both the electrodes
and the concentration of H2SO4 decreases. So, the battery needs recharging.
Overall cell reaction during recharging
The cell can be recharged by passing electric current in the opposite direction. The
electrode reaction gets reversed. As a result, Pb is deposited on anode and PbO2 on the cathode.
The concentration of H2SO4 also increases.
LEAD-ACID STORAGE BATTERY

Advantages of Lead–Acid batteries

1. It is made easily.
2. It produces very high current.
3. The self discharging rate is low.
4. It works effectively even at low temperatures.

Uses
1. Lead – acid batteries are used in cars, buses, trucks etc.
2. It is used in gas engine ignition, telephone exchanges, and power stations
hospitals.
3. IT industry, educational institutions, laboratories etc.
 Nickel-Cadmium Battery
 The nickel–cadmium battery (Ni-Cd battery or NiCad battery) is a type of rechargeable
battery using nickel oxide hydroxide and metallic cadmium as electrodes. The
maximum electromotive force offered by a Ni-Cd cell is 1.3V. Sealed Ni-Cd cells were at
one time widely used in portable power tools, photography equipment, flashlights,
emergency lighting, hobby R/C, and portable electronic devices.
 Specialty Ni–Cd batteries are used in cordless and wireless telephones, emergency
lighting, and other applications. With a relatively low internal resistance, they can supply
high surge currents, a favorable choice for remote-controlled electric model airplanes,
boats, and cars, as well as cordless power tools and camera flash units. Larger flooded
cells are used for aircraft starting batteries, electric vehicles, and standby power.
Nickel-Cadmium Battery
 A fully charged Ni-Cd cell contains: a nickel(III) oxide-hydroxide positive electrode plate, a cadmium
negative electrode plate, a separator, and an alkaline electrolyte (potassium hydroxide).
 Ni-Cd batteries usually have a metal case with a sealing plate equipped with a self-sealing safety valve. The
positive and negative electrode plates, isolated from each other by the separator, are rolled in a spiral shape
inside the case. This allows a Ni–Cd cell to deliver a much higher maximum current than an equivalent size
alkaline cell.

 The chemical reactions at the cadmium electrode during discharge are:

Oxidation : Cd(s) + 2 OH- (aq) → Cd(OH)2(s) + 2 e-

- -
Reduction : 2NiO(OH)(s) + 2 H2O(l) + 2 e → 2Ni(OH)2(s) + 2 OH (aq)

Net reaction : Cd(s) + 2NiO(OH)(s) + 2 H2O(l) → Cd(OH)2(s) + 2Ni(OH)2(s)

 During recharge, the reactions go from right to left. The alkaline electrolyte (commonly KOH) is not
consumed in this reaction.
 Li–Ion Batteries
Li-Ion Batteries consist of a three primary functional components. The main components
of a Li-ion battery device are the positive electrode, negative electrode and the electrolyte, for
which a variety of materials may be used.
Generally, the most useful material for the positive electrode is one of three materials:
lithium cobalt oxide, lithium iron phosphate, or a spinel such as lithium MnO2.
On the other hand, the most common materials for the negative electrode are carbon
based compounds and lithium- containing alloys.
Upon charging, lithium ions are extracted from the positive electrode material and inserted
into the negative electrode material. Upon discharging, the reverse process takes place. Common
batteries should exhibit three characteristics:
(a) high energy and power capacity,
(b) high charging rate, and
( c ) lo n g lifetim e (cy clin g stability).
Although Li-ion batteries are available commercially, the performance of Li-ion batteries
is limited bythe current electrode and electrolyte materials. For future generations of rechargeable
Li-ion batteries, not only for applications in portable electronic devices but especially for clean
energy storage and use in hybrid electric vehicles, further improvements of materials are essential.
Lithium ion cell during charging and
discharging

We need to find new, efficient and effective ways to improve the physical and
chemical characteristics of the materials for use in electrochemical Li-ion batteries.
 Lithium batteries

Li-ion battery has four layer structure.

 Cathode is a positive electrode made with lithium cobalt oxide. It has a current collector made
up of thin aluminium foil.
 Anode is a negative electrode made with specialty carbon, has a current collector made up of
thin copper foil.
 A separator is a fine porous polymer film.
 An electrolyte made with lithium salt in an organic solvent.
The chemical reaction that takes place inside the battery is as follows, during charging and
discharging operations.

Charging
LiCoO2C6 Li1-X CoO2 C6LiX
Discharging
 Fuel Battery or Flow Battery

Flow battery is an electrochemical cell that converts the chemical reaction into
electrical energy. When the reactants are exhausted, new chemicals replace them.

Example: Hydrogen-oxygen cell, Aluminium-air cell, etc.

In Aluminium-air cell, when the cell is exhausted, a new aluminium rod is used and
the solution is diluted with more water as the electrochemical reaction involves aluminium and
water.

FUEL CELLS

First developed by William Grove in 1839, Grove was experimenting on

electrolysis (the process by which water is split into hydrogen and oxygen by an electric
current), when he observed that combining the same elements could also produce an electric
current.
A fuel cell is an electrochemical conversion device. It produces electricity from
fuel (on the anode side) and an oxidant (on the cathode side), which react in the presence
of an electrolyte. The reactants flow into the cell, and the reaction products flow out of it,
while the electrolyte remains within it. Fuel cells can operate virtually continuously as long as
the necessary flows are maintained.
 Fuel Cells are different from electrochemical cell batteries in that they consume reactant
from an external source, which must be replenished – a thermodynamically open system. By
contrast, batteries store electrical energy chemically and hence represent a thermodynamically
closed system.
Many combinations of fuels and oxidants are possible. A hydrogen fuel cell uses hydrogen
as its fuel and oxygen (usually from air) as its oxidant. Other fuels include hydrocarbons and
alcohols. Other oxidants include chlorine and chlorine dioxide.

Classification of Fuel Cells

Based on the type of Electrolyte

1. Polymer Electrolytic Membrane Fuel Cell (PEMFC)

2. Direct Methanol Fuel Cell (DMFC)

3. Alkaline Fuel cell (AFC)

4. Phosphoric Acid Fuel cell (PAFC)

5. Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell (MCFC)

6. Solid Oxide Fuel Cell (SOFC)

 Hydrogen Oxygen Fuel Cells

• In Polymer Electrolyte Membrane (PEM) fuel cells, protons move through the electrolyte
to the cathode to combine with oxygen and electrons, producing water and heat.
• Polymer Electrolyte Membrane (PEM) fuel cell uses a polymeric membrane as the
electrolyte, with platinum electrodes.
• These cells operate at relatively low temperatures.
• These cells are the best candidates for cars, for buildings and smaller applications. Polymer
Electrolyte Membrane (PEM) fuel cells—also called proton exchange membrane fuel
cells—deliver high power density and offer the advantages of low weight and volume,
compared to other fuel cells.

• PEM fuel cells use a solid polymer as an electrolyte and porous carbon electrodes
containing a platinum catalyst.
• They only hydrogen, oxygen from the air, and water to operate and do not require
corrosive fluids like some fuel cells. They are typically fueled with pure hydrogen supplied
from storage tanks or onboard reformers.
• The platinum catalyst is also extremely sensitive to CO poisoning, making it necessary to
employ an additional reactor to reduce CO in the fuel gas if the hydrogen is derived from
an alcohol or hydrocarbon fuel. This also adds cost.
• Developers are currently exploring platinum/ruthenium catalysts that are more resistant to
CO.
Hydrogen-Oxygen Fuel
Cells

AT ANODE : H2  2H +
+ 2e-

AT CATHODE : ½ O2 + 2 H+ + 2e-  H2O

OVERALL REACTION : H2 + ½ O2  Electricity +

H2O + Heat
Hydrogen-Oxygen Fuel
Cells
Advantages

1. They are efficient and instant in operation.

2. They are pollution free.

3. They produce electric current directly from the reaction of a fuel and an oxidizer.
4. They are light in weight

Disadvantages
1. Fuel cells cannot store electric energy.
2. Electrodes are expensive and short lived.
3. H2 should be pure.

Applications

1. H2−O 2 fu el cells are used in space crafts, submarines to get electricity

2 . In H 2 −O 2 fuel cell, the product water is a valuable source of fresh water for
astronauts.
Microbial fuel cell (MFC technology)
Microbial Fuel Cells (MFCs) have been described as “bioreactors that
convert the energy in the chemical bonds of organic compounds into
electrical energy through catalytic activity of micro-organisms under
anaerobic conditions”. MFC technology represents a novel approach of
using bacteria for generation of bioelectricity by oxidation of organic waste
and renewable biomass.

The operational and functional advantages of MFCs are:

 MFCs use organic waste matter as fuels and readily available microbes
as catalysts.
 MFCs do not require highly regulated distribution systems like the ones
needed for Hydrogen Fuel Cells.
 MFCs have high conversion efficiency as compared to Enzymatic Fuel
Cells, in harvesting up to 90% of the electrons from the bacterial electron
transport system.
MFC technology (Waste to Energy Technology)
 MFC technology
When microorganisms consume a substance such
as sugar in aerobic conditions, they produce carbon
dioxide and water. However, when oxygen is not
present, they produce carbon dioxide, hydrons
(hydrogen ions), and electrons, as described below:
C6H12O6 + 6H2O → 6CO2 + 24H+ + 24e−

C12H22O11 + 13H2O → 12CO2 + 48H+ + 48e−

CH3COOH + 2H2O → 2CO2 + 8H+ + 8e−

EXPLOSIVES
 EXPLOSIVES
 An explosive (or explosive material) is a reactive substance that contains a great amount of
potential energy that can produce an explosion if released suddenly, usually accompanied by the
production of light, heat, sound, and pressure. Few examples given below :
CLASSIFICATION OF EXPLOSIVES
EXPLOSIVES
EXPLOSIVES
 EXPLOSIVES
 Low explosives are mixtures of chemicals that burn very rapidly, but sub sonically (as
opposed to supersonically), meaning that they “deflagrate.” They consist typically of fuel
and an oxidizer. The black powder and smokeless powder used in fireworks is one
example of a low explosive.
 High explosives consist of materials that typically combine the reacting elements in the
same molecule. This allows them to react much faster, and they “detonate.” Detonation
involves supersonic shock waves that pass through the material, causing chemistry that
happens quite a bit faster than burning. High explosives do not need to be contained to
make their bang. Nitroglycerine, trinitrotoluene, and RDX are high explosives.
 Alfred Nobel’s dynamite factories transported nitroglycerine, which is highly unstable, or
“sensitive,” in open wooden troughs to avoid the possibility of the pressure shocks that
might occur in enclosed pipes of any sort. Many of the wrenches and other tools used in
the factories were also fabricated from wood. Still the factories experienced several
terrible explosions. During his career, Nobel suffered from terrible nitroglycerine
headaches and late in his life, as his heart disease led to his death, he was treated with
nitroglycerine. Nitroglycerine is rarely, if ever, still used by itself as an explosive (it is still
used in propellant formulations and dynamite), but it is still used as a heart medication.
 EXPLOSIVES

 Primary-high explosives are very sensitive, can be detonated easily and are
generally used only in percussion and electrical detonators. Secondary-high
explosives are less sensitive, require a high-energy shock wave to achieve
detonation and are safer to handle.
 Tertiary high explosives, also called blasting agents, are so insensitive to
shock that they cannot be reliably detonated by practical quantities of
primary explosive, and instead require an intermediate explosive booster of
secondary explosive. Example: ammonium nitrate/fuel oil mixture (ANFO)
and slurry (wet-bag) explosives are used in large-scale mining and
construction.
 Examples of high explosives : Dynamite, Trinitrotoluene, tetryl, picric acid,
Nitrocellulose, Nitroglycerin, Liquid oxygen.
EXPLOSIVES
TNT (TRINITRO TOLUENE, 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene)

It is a yellow solid, produced as a dye in 1863. It doesn’t explode

spontaneously and easy to handle. It is discovered as its explosive properties
in 1891 by Carl Haussermann.
TNT can be melted and poured into containers, but it will explode with the
help of a detonator. The nitro groups in the molecule rapidly turn into nitrogen
gas. This makes it ultimate for use in controlled demolitions, where TNT can
be planted and detonated when planned, making it a safe explosion. For
example by miners or demolition of old and unsafe buildings.
EXPLOSIVES
RDX

 RDX is an organic compound with the formula (O2N2CH2)3. It is a white solid without smell
or taste, widely used as an explosive. Chemically, it is classified as a nitramide,
chemically similar to HMX. A more energetic explosive than TNT, it was used widely
in World War II and remains common in military applications.
 RDX is classified by chemists as a hexahydro-1,3,5-triazine derivative. It is obtained by
treating hexamine (Urotropin) with white fuming nitric acid.
 It is often used in mixtures with other explosives
and plasticizers or phlegmatizers (desensitizers); it is the explosive agent in C-4 plastic
explosive. RDX is stable in storage and is considered one of the most energetic
and brisant of the military high explosives with a relative effectiveness factor of 1.60.
Explosives
DYNAMITE

 Dynamite is an explosive made of nitroglycerin, sorbents (such as powdered shells or clay)

and stabilizers. It was invented by the Swedish chemist and engineer Alfred Nobel in Northern
Germany and patented in 1867. It rapidly gained wide-scale use as a more powerful alternative
to black powder.
 Today, dynamite is mainly used in the mining, quarrying, construction,
and demolition industries. Dynamite is still the product of choice for trenching applications, and
occasionally used as a cost-effective explosive booster for ANFO charges.
 Dynamite is much safer to handle than nitroglycerin alone.
 By mixing the nitroglycerin with Kieselguhr, a porous
siliceous earth dry granular material, Nobel produced a solid that
was resistant to shock but readily detonated by heat /percussion.
later wood pulp was substituted as the absorbent, and sodium
nitrate was added as an oxidizing agent to improve the strength of
the explosion.
ROCKET FUELS AND PROPELLANTS
ROCKET FUELS AND PROPELLANTS
Liquid propellants used by NASA and in commercial launch vehicles can be classified into
three types:

 Petroleum (used as rocket fuel or highly refined kerosene called RP-1, combined with
liquid oxygen as the oxidizer)
 Cryogenics (liquefied gases stored at low temperatures, namely liquid hydrogen at -
253 deg C and liquid oxygen at -183 deg C.
 Hypergolic (fuels and oxidizers which ignite spontaneously on contact with each other,
ideal for spacecraft systems, are highly toxic and must be handled with extreme care)
ROCKET FUELS AND PROPELLANTS

Solid propellant are solid compounds (fuel and

oxidizer) which burn at a rapid rate, expelling
hot gases from a nozzle to produce thrust.
Unlike liquid propellant, it cannot be shut down.
Once ignited, they will burn until all the
propellant is exhausted.
Hybrid propellant represents high performance,
an intermediate group between solid and liquid
propellant engines. One of the substances is
solid, usually the fuel, while the other, usually
the oxidizer, is liquid. The liquid is injected into
the solid, whose fuel reservoir also serves as
UNIT IV ENERGY CONVERSIONS AND STORAGE