Chapter 30

How Animals Move

PowerPoint Lectures for

Biology: Concepts & Connections, Sixth Edition

Campbell, Reece, Taylor, Simon, and Dickey

Copyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

Lecture by Edward J. Zalisko Edited by: Sheryl Santa Cruz

You should be able to

1. Compare the adaptations of humans and horses that increase speed 2. Describe the diverse methods of animal locomotion and the forces they must overcome

3. Describe the three main types of skeletons

4. Describe the complex structure of bone

5. Describe the causes of osteoporosis

6. Describe three types of joints
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You should be able to

7. Describe the structure and arrangement of the filaments found in a muscle cell 8. Explain how a muscle cell contracts 9. Describe the role of calcium in a muscle contraction 10. Distinguish between aerobic and anaerobic exercise 11. Compare the structure and functions of different muscle fiber types
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Introduction: Man Versus Horse

Horses are well adapted for long-distance running
Longer legs

Lighter legs
Increased oxygen-carrying capacity

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Introduction: Man Versus Horse

Humans have a more versatile body
Humans run, crawl, swim, tumble, and throw

Flexibility generally reduces efficiency

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MOVEMENT AND LOCOMOTION

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30.1 Animals have evolved diverse means of locomotion

Animal movement is very diverse Locomotion
Active travel from place to place Requires energy to overcome friction and gravity

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30.1 Animals have evolved diverse means of locomotion

Swimming
Supported by water But slowed by friction

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30.1 Animals have evolved diverse means of locomotion

Walking, hopping, or running
Less affected by friction But must resist gravity

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30.1 Animals have evolved diverse means of locomotion

Burrowing or crawling
Must overcome great friction May move by side-to-side undulations Or may move by a form of peristalsis

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Longitudinal muscle relaxed (extended)

Circular muscle contracted

Circular muscle relaxed

Longitudinal muscle contracted

Head
1

Bristles
2

30.1 Animals have evolved diverse means of locomotion

Flying
Wings are airfoils that generate lift Flying is seen in birds, bats, and most insects

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SKELETAL SUPPORT

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30.2 Skeletons function in support, movement, and protection

Skeletons provide
Body support

Movement by working with muscles

Protection of internal organs

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30.2 Skeletons function in support, movement, and protection

Hydrostatic skeletons
Fluid held under pressure in a closed body compartment Found in worms and cnidarians

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30.2 Skeletons function in support, movement, and protection

Exoskeletons
Hard external cases Chitinous, jointed skeletons of arthropods Calcium carbonate shells of molluscs

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Shell (exoskeleton) Mantle

Figure 30.2C The exoskeleton of a mollusc: a cowrie (a marine snail)

30.2 Skeletons function in support, movement, and protection

Endoskeletons
Internal skeleton May be made of
Cartilage or bonevertebrates Spiculessponges Hard platesechinoderms

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Figure 30.2D A sea urchin (above) and its endoskeleton (right).

Figure 30.2E Bone (tan) and cartilage (blue) in the endoskeleton of a vertebrate: a frog.

30.3 EVOLUTION CONNECTION: Vertebrate skeletons are variations on an ancient theme

Human skeleton
Axial skeleton
Skull Vertebrae Ribs

Appendicular skeleton
Shoulder and pelvic girdles Arms and legs

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Skull Shoulder girdle Sternum Ribs Humerus Vertebra Radius Ulna Pelvic girdle Carpals Clavicle Scapula

Phalanges Metacarpals Femur

Patella
Tibia

Fibula
Tarsals Metatarsals Phalanges

Skull Shoulder girdle Sternum Ribs Humerus

Clavicle
Scapula

Vertebra
Radius Ulna Pelvic girdle Carpals

Phalanges Metacarpals

Femur Patella Tibia

Fibula
Tarsals Metatarsals Phalanges

Intervertebral discs

7 cervical vertebrae

12 thoracic vertebrae

Hip bone

5 lumbar vertebrae

Sacrum Coccyx

30.3 EVOLUTION CONNECTION: Vertebrate skeletons are variations on an ancient theme

Vertebrate bodies reveal variations of this basic skeletal arrangement

Master control (homeotic) genes

Are active during early development Direct the arrangement of the skeleton

Vertebrates have evolved by changes in these master control genes

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Python

Chicken Thoracic vertebrae Lumbar vertebrae

Cervical vertebrae

Gene expression during development Hoxc6 Hoxc8 Hoxc6 and Hoxc8

30.4 Bones are complex living organs

Cartilage at the ends of bones
Cushions joints Reduces friction of movements

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30.4 Bones are complex living organs

Bone cells
Live in a matrix of
Flexible protein fibers Hard calcium salts

Are kept alive by

Blood vessels Hormones Nerves

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30.4 Bones are complex living organs

Long bones have
A fat-storing central cavity Spongy bone
Located at the ends of bones Contains bone marrow, the site of blood cell production

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Cartilage

Spongy bone (contains red bone marrow)

Spongy bone Compact bone Central cavity Yellow bone marrow

Cartilage

Blood vessels

Fibrous connective tissue

30.5 CONNECTION: Healthy bones resist stress and heal from injuries
Bone cells
Repair bones Reshape bones throughout life

Broken bones
Are realigned and immobilized
Bone cells build new bone, healing the break

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30.5 CONNECTION: Healthy bones resist stress and heal from injuries
Osteoporosis is a bone disease characterized by
Weak, porous bones

Less likely if
High levels of calcium in diet Regular exercise No smoking

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Figure 30.5B Healthy spongy bone tissue (left) and bone diseased by osteoporosis (right).

30.6 Joints permit different types of movement

Joints allow limited movement of bones Different joints permit various movements

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Head of humerus

Humerus

Scapula

Ulna

Ulna Radius

Ball-and-socket joint

Hinge joint

Pivot joint

Figure 30.6 Three kinds of joints.

Head of humerus

Scapula

Ball-and-socket joint

Humerus

Ulna

Hinge joint

Ulna Radius

Pivot joint

MUSCLE CONTRACTION AND MOVEMENT

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30.7 The skeleton and muscles interact in movement

Muscles and bones interact to produce movement Muscles can only contract

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30.7 The skeleton and muscles interact in movement

Antagonistic pairs of muscles
Reverse actions Relengthen muscles

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Biceps contracted, triceps relaxed (extended)

Triceps contracted, biceps relaxed

Biceps

Biceps

Triceps
Tendon Triceps

30.8 Each muscle cell has its own contractile apparatus

Muscle fibers
Are cells Consist of bundles of myofibrils

Myofibrils contain overlapping

Thick (myosin) filaments
Thin (actin) filaments

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30.8 Each muscle cell has its own contractile apparatus

Sarcomeres are
Repeating groups of thick and thin filaments The contractile unitthe fundamental unit of muscle action

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Muscle

Several muscle fibers

Single muscle fiber (cell) Nuclei Plasma membrane Myofibril

Light band

Dark band

Light band Z line

Sarcomere

Thick filaments (myosin) Thin filaments (actin) Z line Sarcomere Z line

Muscle

Several muscle fibers

Single muscle fiber (cell) Nuclei Plasma membrane Myofibril

Light Dark Light band band band Z line

Sarcomere

Plasma membrane

Myofibril

Light band

Dark band

Light band Z line

Sarcomere

Thick filaments (myosin) Thin filaments (actin) Z line Sarcomere Z line

30.9 A muscle contracts when thin filaments slide across thick filaments
The sliding-filament model explains muscle contraction

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Sarcomere Dark band

Relaxed muscle

Contracting muscle

Fully contracted muscle

Contracted sarcomere

30.9 A muscle contracts when thin filaments slide across thick filaments
Myosin heads of the thick filaments
Bind ATP and Extend to high-energy states

Myosin heads then

Attach to binding sites on the actin molecules and
Pull the thin filaments toward the center of the sarcomere

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Thick filament Thin filaments

Z line
1

Thin filament ATP Thick filament Myosin head (lowenergy configuration)

Actin
2

ADP P

Myosin head (highenergy configuration)

ADP P

Cross-bridge

ADP+ P Thin filament moves toward center of sarcomere.

4

New position of Z line

Myosin head (lowenergy configuration)

Thin filament
ATP

Z line Myosin head (low-energy)

Thick filament

Thin filament
ATP

Z line Myosin head (low-energy)

Thick filament
Actin

2
ADP P

Myosin head (high-energy)

Thin filament
ATP

Z line Myosin head (low-energy)

Thick filament
Actin

2
ADP P

Myosin head (high-energy)

3
ADP P

Cross-bridge

Thin filament
ATP

Z line Myosin head (low-energy)

Thick filament
Actin

2
ADP P

Myosin head (high-energy)

3
ADP P

Cross-bridge

ADP + P

New position of Z line Myosin head (low-energy)

30.10 Motor neurons stimulate muscle contraction

Motor neurons
Carry action potentials That initiate muscle contractions

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30.10 Motor neurons stimulate muscle contraction

The axon of a motor neuron
Forms synapses with a muscle At a neuromuscular junction

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Motor neuron axon Synaptic terminal T tubule

Action potential

Mitochondrion

Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) Myofibril Plasma membrane Sarcomere Ca2+ released from ER

30.10 Motor neurons stimulate muscle contraction

Acetylcholine
Is released from the synaptic terminal of a motor neuron Diffuses to the plasma membrane of the muscle fiber

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30.10 Motor neurons stimulate muscle contraction

An action potential in a muscle fiber
Passes along T tubules
Into the center of muscle fiber

Calcium ions
Are released from the endoplasmic reticulum Initiate muscle contraction by moving regulatory proteins away from the actin binding sites

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Tropomyosin Actin

Ca2+-binding sites

Troponin complex

Myosin-binding sites blocked

Ca2+

Myosinbinding site

Myosin-binding sites exposed

30.10 Motor neurons stimulate muscle contraction

A motor unit consists of
A neuron The set of muscle fibers it controls

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Spinal cord

Motor Motor unit 1 unit 2

Nerve Motor neuron Motor neuron cell body axon Synaptic terminals Muscle Nuclei Muscle fibers (cells)

Tendon Bone

30.11 CONNECTION: Aerobic respiration supplies most of the energy for exercise
Aerobic exercise provides most of the ATP used to power muscle movement during exercise Aerobic exercise requires a steady supply of
Glucose Oxygen

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30.12 CONNECTION: Muscle fiber characteristics affect athletic performance

Anaerobic exercise
Generates ATP faster Is much less efficient at producing ATP

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30.12 CONNECTION: Muscle fiber characteristics affect athletic performance

Muscle fibers can be classified as
Slow fibers Intermediate fibers Fast fibers

Most muscles have a combination of fiber types

The proportion of fiber types can be affected by exercise

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30.12 CONNECTION: Muscle fiber characteristics affect athletic performance

Muscles adapt to exercise by increasing
Levels of myoglobin Number of mitochondria Number of capillaries going to muscles

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100 80 60 40 20 0 World- Average Average Middle- World- Extreme Couch Class Active Distance Class Endurance Sprinter Potato Person Runner Marathon Athlete Runner Slow Intermediate Fast

Sarcomere

Myosin

Actin