MUSCULAR

SYSTEM
Prepared by:
ROSELLE B. ANGUAY, RN
Course Instructor
3 TYPES OF MUSCLE
TISSUES:
1. Skeletal Muscle – attached to the bones

2. Cardiac Muscle – heart

3. Smooth muscle – walls of hollow organs, blood

vessels and glands; small intestines
MAJOR FUNCTIONS OF THE
MUSCULAR SYSTEM

M-M-R-P-C-C-C

1. Movement of the body

2. Maintenance of posture
3. Respiration
4. Production of the body heat
5. Communication
6. Constriction of organs and vessels
7. Contraction of the heart
4 FUNCTIONAL PROPERTIES OF
MUSCLE TISSUE:
1.Contractility – ability of the muscle to shorten forcefully or
contract. Skeletal muscle contraction, causes the structure to
which they are attached to move. Smooth or cardiac muscle
contraction increases pressure inside the organ it surrounds, such
as the intestines or the heart.
Eg. Gravity pulling a limb and pressure of fluid in a hollow
organ, such as urine in the bladder.
2. Excitability – capacity of muscle to respond to a stimulus. For
skeletal muscle, stimulus to contract is from nerves that we
consciously control. Smooth and cardiac muscle fibers contract
spontaneously, but also receive involuntary neural signals and
hormonal signals to modulate force or rate of contraction.

3. Extensibility – means that a muscle can be stretched beyond

it’s normal resting length and still be able to contract.

4. Elasticity – ability of muscle to recoil to its original resting

length after it has been stretched.
 SKELETAL MUSCLE
STRUCTURE
 Skeletal muscle or striated muscle, with its associated
connective tissue, constitutes approximately 40% of body
weight. Skeletal muscle is so named because most of the
muscles are attached to the skeletal system.
 It is also called striated muscle because transverse bands, or
striations, can be seen in the muscle under the microscope.

 Skeletal muscle consists of skeletal muscle tissue, nervous

tissue, connective tissue and adipose tissue.
 CONNECTIVE TISSUE COVERINGS OF THE
MUSCLE

 Epimysium or muscular fascia- connective tissue sheath that

surrounds each skeletal muscle.
 Each whole muscle is subdivided into numerous visible bundles
called muscle fascicles.
 Perimysium - loose connective tissue the separates muscle
fascicles from each other.
 Each fascicle is then subdivided into separates muscle cells
called muscle fibers.
 Endomysium - loose connective tissue that surrounds each
muscle fiber.
 MUSCLE FIBER STRUCTURE
 Muscle Fiber –single cylindrical cell, with several nuclei located its
periphery. The largest human muscle fibers can be almost a foot
long (one foot in length), range is from 1cm to 30cm and 0.15 mm
in diameter.
 Sarcolemma- cell membrane of muscle fiber
 Transverse tubules or T tubules- tubelike inward folds that occur
at regular intervals along the muscle fibers and extend into the
center of muscle fiber.
 Sarcoplasmic reticulum- enlarged portions of the smooth
endoplasmic reticulum
 Terminal Cisternae – enlarged portion of sarcoplasmic reticulum
• Triad – formed when the T tubules connect to the sarcolemma
to the terminal cisternae.

• Sarcoplasm- the cytoplasm of a muscle fiber.

• Myofibrils - bundles of protein filaments

Two major kinds of protein fibers:

1. Actin Myofilaments

2. Myosin Myofilaments
SARCOMERES

• Basic structural and functional unit of a skeletal muscle because it

is the smallest portion of skeletal muscles capable of contracting.

• Z disks- separates one sarcomeres from the next. A network of

protein fibers that forms stationary anchors for actin myofilaments
to attach. One sarcomere extends from one Z disk to the next Z
disk.

• I bands- light -staining bonds. Each I band includes a Z disk and

extends toward the center of the sarcomere to the ends of the
myosin myofilaments. It consist of only actin myofilaments.
• A bond- central dark-staining band that extends the length of
the myosin myofilaments within sarcomere.

• H zone- smaller, lighter- staining region found in the center

of each A band. It contains only myosin myofilaments.

• M line- consist of fine protein filaments that anchor the

myosin myofilaments in place.

Note: Upon stimulation of the skeletal muscle fiber by a motor

neuron, the actin myofilaments slide past the myosin
myofilaments into the H zone.
ACTIN AND MYOSIN MYOFILAMENTS

• Actin myofilaments - thin filaments

3 components of actin myofilaments:

1. Actin- have attachments sites for the myosin myofilaments.
Resembles two strands of pearls twisted together.

2. Troponin- have binding sites for CA²⁺. It is attached at specific

intervals along the actin myofilaments.

3. Tropomyosin- blocks the myosin myofilament binding sites on the

actin myofilaments.
Myosin myofilaments - thick myofilaments, resemble bundles of tiny
golf clubs.

• Myosin heads- parts of the myosin molecule that resembles

golf club heads.

3 important properties of myosin myofilaments:

1. The heads bind to attachment sites on the actin myofilaments.
2. They bend and straighten during contraction.
3. hey break down ATP, releasing energy
 EXCITABILITY OF MUSCLE
FIBERS
 Inside of the membrane - negatively charged
 Outside of the cell membrane - positively charged.
 In other words, the cell membrane is polarized.

2 major types of cell membrane channels:

1. Leak channels
2. Gated channels
 Resting membrane potential- electrical charge difference
across the cell membrane of an unstimulated cell.

In addition to the outward concentration gradient for K⁺, there is

also an inward electrical gradient for K⁺. The negatively charged molecules inside the
cell membrane attract K⁺ back into the cell. The diffusion of K⁺ out of the cell occurs
only until the inward charge attraction is equal to the outward concentration gradient.
Thus, the resting membrane potential is in equilibrium: the tendency for K⁺ to diffuse
out of the cell is opposed by attraction of positively charged K⁺ toward the negative
cell interior.
ACTION POTENTIALS
• To initiate a muscle contraction, resting membrane potential must be
changed.
• The entry of Na⁺ causes the inside of the cell membrane to become
more positive than when the cell is at resting membrane potential.

• Depolarization- increase in positive charge in the cell membrane.

• Threshold- if depolarization changes the membrane potential to a
value.
• Action potential- is a rapid change in charge across the cell
membrane.
• Repolarization- it starts by opening of gated K⁺ of the cell membrane
and due to the exit of K⁺ from the cell.
• In a muscle fiber, an action potential results in muscle contraction.
 NERVE SUPPLY AND MUSCLE STIMULATION

• Skeletal muscle do not contract unless they are stimulated by

motor neurons.

 Motor neurons - specialized nerve cells that stimulate muscle

contract. It generates action potentials that travel to skeletal muscle
fibers.

 Neuromuscular junction - synapse, the cell-to-cell junction

between a nerve cell and either another nerve cell or an effector
cell, such as in a muscle or a gland.

 A single motor neuron and all the skeletal fibers it innervates

• The neuromuscular junction consist of several enlarge axon
terminals resting in indentations of the muscle fiber’s
sarcolemma.

• Presynaptic terminal - axon terminal

• Synaptic cleft - space between the presynaptic terminal and the

muscle fibers membrane.

• Sarcolemma - postsynaptic membrane.

• Synaptic vesicles – small vesicles within each presynaptic

terminal.
• Acetylcholine – or ACh, a neurotransmitter within the synaptic
vesicles.

• Neurotransmitters – stimulate or inhibit postsynaptic cells.

• Acetylcholinesterase - an enzyme produced when the

acetylcholine release into the synaptic cleft between the neuron
and the muscle fibers is rapidly broken down.

• The enzymatic breakdown of acetylcholine prevents overstimulation

of the muscle fibers.
Neuromuscular Junction
 MUSCLE CONTRACTION
 Contraction of skeletal muscle tissue occurs as actin myofilaments
and myosin myofilaments slide past one another, causing the
sarcomeres to shorten.
 Many sarcomeres causes myofibrils to shorten, thereby causing the
entire muscle to shorten.

 Sliding filament model - process of muscle contraction where actin

myofilaments slide past myosin myofilaments during contraction.

 Cross-bridge – formed when the heads of the myosin myofilaments

bind to the exposed attachment sites on the actin myofilaments.
Summary of Skeletal Muscle Contraction
ACETYLCHOLINE ANTAGONIST

 Anything that affects the production , release or degradation of

acetylcholine or its ability to bind to its receptor on the muscle
cell membrane can affect the transmission of action potentials
across the neuromuscular junction.

Eg. Some insecticides contain organophosphates that bind

to and inhibit the function of acetylcholinesterase.
 Spastic Paralysis - respiratory muscles contract and cannot relax
and followed by fatigue in the muscles.

 Curare- substance that bind to the acetylcholine receptors on the

muscle cell membrane and prevent acetylcholine from binding to
them.
 Curare used to investigate the role of acetylcholine in the
neuromuscular synapse and is sometimes administered in small
doses to relax muscles during certain kinds of surgery.

 Flaccid paralysis- muscle that is incapable of contracting in

response to nervous stimulation.
 BREAKDOWN OF ATP AND CROSS-
BRIDGE MOVEMENT DURING MUSCLE
CONTRACTION
1. Exposure of active site
2. Cross bridge formation
3. Power stroke
4. Cross bridge release
5. Hydrolysis at ATP
6. Recovery stroke
 MUSCLE TWITCH, SUMMATION,
TETANUS AND RECRUITMENT
 Muscle twitch- a single contraction of a muscle fiber in response
to a stimulus. It usually involves all the muscle fibers in a motor
unit.

3 phases of muscle twitch:

1. Lag phase – latent phase, time between the application of a
stimulus and the beginning of contraction.
2. Contraction phase - time during muscle contracts.
3. Relaxation phase- time during the muscle relaxes.
Muscle contraction force is increased two ways:

1.Summation - individual muscles contract more forcefully,

rapidly stimulating individual muscle fibers prevents relaxation or
detachment of cross-bridges. One contraction summates or is
added onto, a previous contraction, increasing the overall force of
contraction.

Tetanus – convulsive tension, sustained contraction that occurs

when the frequency of stimulation is so rapid that no relaxation
occurs.

2.Recruitment – more motor units are stimulated, which

increases the total number of muscle fibers contracting. Thus, the
muscle contracts with more force.
FIBER TYPES
Classification of muscle fiber based on the differences
in the rod portion of the myosin myofilament:

1. Slow-twitch fibers – contract more slowly, contain type I

myosin as the predominant or even exclusive type.
2. Fast-twitch fibers – contract quickly, contain either type
IIa or type IIb myosin myofilaments.
 ENERGY REQUIREMENTS FOR MUSCLE
CONTRACTION
 Muscle fibers are very energy-demanding cells whether at rest or
during any form of exercise. This energy comes from either aerobic
(with O2) or anaerobic (without O2) ATP production.

Generally, ATP is derived from four process in skeletal muscle:

1.Aerobic production of ATP during most exercise and normal
conditions.
2.Anaerobic production of ATP during intensive short-term work.
3.Conversion of a molecule called creatine phosphate to ATP.
4.Conversion of two ADP to one ATP and one AMP (adenosine
monophosphate) during heavy exercise.
• Aerobic respiration - occurs mostly in mitochondria, requires O2
and breaks down glucose to produce ATP, CO₂, and H₂O. It can also
process lipids or amino acids to make ATP.
Eg. Slow-twitch fibers; low intensity , long duration
exercise

• Anerobic respiration – does not require O₂, breaks down glucose

to produce ATP and lactate.
Eg. Fast-twitch fibers; high intensity, short duration
exercise such as sprinting and carrying very heavy
 FATIGUE
 temporary state of reduced work capacity. Without fatigue, muscle
fibers would be worked to the point of structural damage to them and
their supportive tissues.
 Built up lactic acid and drop of pH (acidosis)- major causes of
fatigue

3 Mechanisms underlying muscular fatigue.

1. Acidosis and ATP depletion due to either an increased ATP
consumption or decreased of ATP production
2. Oxidative stress, which is characterized by the buildup of excess
reactive oxygen species (ROS; free radicals)
3. Local inflammatory reactions.
Acidosis and ATP Depletion

• Anaerobic respiration breakdown of glucose to lactate and

protons, accounting for lowered pH.

• Lactic acidosis results when liver dysfunction results in reduced

clearance of lactate.

• Increased lactate levels are due to increased anaerobic

respiration production of ATP when aerobic respiration production
of ATP is reduced.
Oxidative Stress

• During intense exercise, increase the ROS production cause the

breakdown of the protein, lipids, or nucleic acid.

• It triggers an immune system chemical called interleukin, IL-6 a

mediator of inflammation which is most likely cause of muscle
soreness.
Inflammation

• In addition to the stimulation of IL-6 by ROS, which causes

inflammation, the immune system is directly activated by exercise.

• T lymphocytes, type of white blood cell, migrates into heavily

worked muscles.

• Presence of immune system intermediates increases the perception

of pain, which is most likely serves as a signal to protect those
tissues from further damage.
• Physiological contracture- Conditions of extreme muscular fatigue,
muscle may become incapable of either contracting or relaxing. It
occurs when there is too little ATP to bind to myosin myofilaments.

• Psychological fatigue- most common type of fatigue, involves the

central nervous system rather than muscles themselves. The muscles
are still capable of contracting, but the individual “perceives” that
continued muscle contraction is impossible.
 EFFECT OF FIBER TYPE ON ACTIVITY
LEVEL
 The darker the appearance is due partly to a richer blood supply and partly
to the presence of myoglobin, which stores oxygen temporarily.

• Myoglobin- continue to release oxygen in a muscle even when a

sustained contraction has interrupt the continuous flow of blood.

• Athletes who are able to perform variety of anaerobic and aerobic

exercises tend to have a balanced mixture of fast-twitch and slow-twitch
muscle fibers.

• Exercise increases the blood supply to muscles, number of mitochondria

per muscle fiber and the number of myofibrils and myofilaments, thus
causing muscle fibers to enlarge or hypertrophy.
• Sprinters have more fast-twitch muscle fibers, whereas distance
runners have more slow-twitch fibers.

• Enlargement of muscles after birth is primarily the result of an

increase in the size of the existing muscle fibers.

• Satellite cells – undifferentiated cells just below the endomysium.

When stimulated, satellite cells can differentiate and develop into a
limited number of new, functional muscle fibers.
Types of muscle contractions

2 types of muscle contractions:

1. Isometric contractions- equal distance, increase the tension in

the muscles without changing its length. Responsible for constant
length of the body’s postural muscles.

2. Isotonic contractions- equal tension, constant amount of

tension while decreasing the length of the muscle.
Eg. Movements of the arms and fingers
• Concentric contraction- isotonic contraction in which muscle
tension increases as the muscle shortens.

• Eccentric contraction- isotonic contraction in which tension

is maintained in the muscle, but the opposing resistance
causes the muscle to lengthen.
Eg. Persons slowly lowers heavy weight
Muscle Tone

• Constant tension produced by body muscles over long periods of

time. It is responsible for keeping the back and legs straight, head
in an upright position and the abdomen from bulging.

• It depends on a small percentage of all the motor units in a muscle

being stimulated at any point in time, causing their muscle fibers to
contract tetanically and out of phase with one another.
SMOOTH MUSCLE AND CARDIAC MUSCLE

 Smooth muscle are small and spindle-shaped, usually with one

nucleus per cell.

 Contain less actin and myosin myofilaments that skeletal

muscles do, and the myofilaments are not organized into
sarcomere.

 Smooth muscle cells are not striated.

 It can periodically and spontaneously generate action

potentials that cause the smooth muscle cells to contract.
• Autorhythmicity – resulting periodic spontaneous contraction
of smooth muscle.

• Smooth muscle is under involuntary control, whereas

skeletal muscle is under voluntary motor control.

• Smooth muscles cells tend to function as a unit and contract

at the same time.
• Cardiac Muscle –shares some characteristics with both smooth
and skeletal muscles.

• Are long, striated and branching, with usually only one nucleus
per cell.
•
• Actin and myosin myofilaments are organized into sarcomeres, but
the distribution of myofilaments is not as uniform as in skeletal
muscle.

• Cardiac muscle exhibits limited anaerobic respiration, instead, it

continues to contract at a level that can be sustained by aerobic
respiration and consequently does not fatigue.
• Intercalated disks are specialized structures that include
desmosomes and gap junctions where cardiac muscle cells are
connected to one another.

• Intercalated disks – allow action potentials to be conducted

directly from cell to cell .

• Cardiac muscle cells function as a single unit. It is under

involuntary control and is influenced by hormones, such as
epinephrine.
 SKELETAL MUSCLE
ANATOMY
 Majority of our muscles extend from one bone to another and
cross at least one joint.

 Tendon -it is where the muscle is connected to the bone at each

end.
 Aponeuroses - broad, sheet like tendons
 Retinaculum – bracelet, band of connective tissue that holds
down the tendons at each wrist and ankle.
Muscle contraction causes most body movements by pulling
one of the bones toward the other across the movable joint.

2 points of attachment of each muscle:

1. Origin - also called the head, is the most stationary end
of the muscle. Origins are usually, but not always, proximal
or medial to the insertion of a given muscle
Eg. biceps brachii has two, and the triceps brachii has
three. 2. 2. 2. 2.Insertion - end of the muscle attached to the
bone undergoing the greatest movement.

Belly - part of the muscle between the origin and the insertion
• Muscle’s action – specific body movement a muscle contraction
causes.

Muscles are studied in groups:

1. Agonists – action of single muscle or group of muscles

2. Antagonists – it opposes by that of another muscle or group of

muscles.

• For example, the biceps brachii flexes the elbow (agonist), and the
triceps brachii extends the elbow (antagonist).

• Muscles also tend to function in groups to accomplish specific

movements.
• Synergists – movement produced by members of a group muscles
Prime Mover – one muscle plays the major role in accomplishing
the desired movement
Eg. Brachialis is the prime mover in flexing the elbow

Fixators – muscles that hold one bone in place relative to the

body while a usually more distal bone is moved.
Eg. Muscles of the scapula act as fixators to hold the scapula
in place while other muscles contract to move the humerus.

Flexors and extensors – muscles that are members of more than

one group that depends on the type of movement they produced.
MUSCLE ATTACHMENT
NOMENCLATURE
7 characteristics of naming a specific muscle:
L-S-S-O-N-F
1. Location - A pectoralis (chest) muscle is located in the chest a
gluteus (buttock) muscle is in the buttock, and a brachial (arm)
muscle is in the arm.
2. Size - The gluteus maximus (large) is the largest muscle of the
buttock, and the gluteus minimus (small) is the smallest. A
longus (long) muscle is longer than a brevis (short) muscle.
Eg. If there is a brevis muscle, most likely a longus muscle is
present in the same area.
3. Shape - The deltoid (triangular) muscle is triangular in shape,
a quadratus (quadrate) muscle is rectangular, and a teres
(round) muscle is round.

4. Orientation of fascicles - A rectus (straight, parallel) muscle

has muscle fascicles running in the same direction as the
structure with which the muscle is associated, whereas the
fascicles of an oblique muscle lie at an angle to the length of the
structure.

5. Origin and insertion - The sternocleidomastoid has its origin

on the sternum and clavicle and its insertion on the mastoid
process of the temporal bone. The brachioradialis originates in
the arm (brachium) and inserts onto the radius.
6. Number of heads - A biceps muscle has two heads (origins)
and a triceps muscle has three heads (origins).

7. Function - Abduction moves a structure away from the midline,

and adduction moves a structure toward the midline.
Eg. Abductors and adduction
 MUSCLES OF THE HEAD AND
NECK
 Involved in forming facial expressions such as chewing, moving
the tongue, swallowing, producing sounds, moving the eyes, and
moving the head and neck
Facial Expression

Facial expressions are important components of nonverbal

communication. Several muscles act to move the skin around the
eyes and eyebrows, lips , skin surrounding the mouth.

• Occipitofrontalis - raises the eyebrows, moves scalp

• Orbicularis Oculi - around the eyes, tightly close the eyelids and
cause wrinkles in the skin at the lateral corner of the eyes and also
blinking
• Orbicularis oris - around the mouth, closes and purses lips
“kissing”

• Buccinator – walls of the cheek, trumpeter’s muscle, flattens

cheeks as in whistling or blowing a trumpet. Draws corner of
the mouth posteriorly; compresses cheek to hold food
between teeth

Note: These 2 muscles are called “kissing muscles” because

they pucker the mouth.
• Zygomaticus - elevate the upper lip and corner of the mouth,
smiling is accomplished by zygomaticus.

• Levator labii superioris - elevates one side of the upper lip;

sneering is accomplished by this muscle.

• Drepessor anguli oris - depresses the corner of the mouth,

frowning and pouting is largely performed by this muscle.
Mastication

• The four pairs of muscles for chewing, or mastication, are some of

the strongest muscles in the body.

• Temporalis and masseter muscles can be easily seen and felt on the
side of the head during mastication.
• Temporalis – elevates and draws mandible posteriorly; closes jaw
• Masseter – elevates and pushes mandible anteriorly; closes jaw

• Pterygoid muscles, consisting of 2 pairs, are deep into the

mandible.
• Lateral pterygoid muscles – pushes mandible anteriorly and
depresses mandible; closes jaw
• Medial pterygoid muscles - pushes mandible anteriorly and
elevates mandible; closes jaw
Tongue and Swallowing Muscles

• Tongue is very important in mastication and speech.

• It moves food around the mouth, with buccinator muscle, holds

the food in place while the teeth grind.

• Pushes the food up to the palate and back towards the pharynx
to initiate swallowing.
2 Types of muscles in Tongue

• Intrinsic muscles - located entirely within the tongue and

change its shape.

• Extrinsic muscles - outside the tongue but are attached to

and move the tongue.

Swallowing involves a number of structures and their

associated muscles, including the hyoid muscles, soft palate,
pharynx (throat), and larynx (voice box).
2 groups of Hyoid Muscles:

•Suprahyoid group (superior to the hyoid bone)- hold the

hyoid bone in place from above. It elevates or stabilizes hyoid.

•Infrahyoid group (inferior to the hyoid bone)- depresses or

stabilizes hyoid and elevate the larynx.
Muscles of soft palate and pharynx close the posterior opening
to the nasal cavity during swallowing, preventing food and liquid
from entering the nasal cavity.

• Pharyngeal elevators-elevate the pharynx.

• Pharyngeal constrictors- constrict the pharynx from superior

to inferior, forcing the food into the esophagus.

• Soft palate- is moveable, consisting of muscle fibers sheathed

in mucous membrane.
• Pharynx- its muscular walls function in the process of
swallowing, and it serves as a pathway for the movement of food
from the mouth to the esophagus.
• Larynx- houses the vocal folds, and manipulates pitch and
volume, which is essential for phonation.
• Pharyngeal muscles- open the auditory tube which connects the
middle ear to the pharynx.

• Opening of the auditory tube equalizes the pressure between

the middle ear and the atmosphere.

Note: Chewing a gum or swallowing is sometimes helpful when

ascending or descending a mountain in a car or changing altitude
in an airplane.
NECK MUSCLE

The deep neck muscles include:

1.Neck flexors – originate on the anterior surface of the
verterbral bodies; flex the head and neck
2. Neck extensors – originate on the posterior surface of the
vertebral bodies.
• Sternocleidomastoid - prime mover of the lateral muscle
group seen on anterior and lateral sides of the neck;
individually rotate head and together can flex or extend the
head and neck.
• Trapezius – extends and laterally flexes neck

Torticollis – twisted neck or wry neck, result from injury to one

of the sternocleidomastoid. It is sometimes caused by damage of
baby’s necks muscles during a difficult birth and be corrected by
exercising the muscle.
Deep Neck and Back Muscles
TRUNK MUSCLES
 Trunk muscles include those that move :
1. Vertebral column,
2. Thorax,
3. Abdominal wall
4. Pelvic floor.
Muscles Moving the Vertebral Column
• Erector Spinae - group of muscles on each side of the back;
Responsible for keeping the back straight and the body erect
and extends vertebral colum

3 columns of Erector Spinae:

1. Iliocostalis
2. Longissimus
3. Spinalis

• Deep back muscles – located between the spinous and

transverse process of adjacent vertebrae; responsible for the
movement of vertebral column, including extension, lateral
flexion and rotation.
• When deep back muscles are stretched or torn, muscle
strains and sprains of lumbar vertebral ligaments occur
resulting in low back pain.

Treatments for low back pain:

• Anti- inflammatory medication
• RICE (, ice, compression and elevation)
R – rest
I – ice
C – compression
E – elevation
Thoracic Muscles

It involves almost entirely in the process of breathing.

• External Intercostals - elevate the ribs during inspiration

• Internal Intercostals - depress the ribs during forced

expiration

• Scalenes – also elevate the ribs during inspiration

• Diaphragm - dome-shaped, major movement produced in

the thorax during quite breathing is accomplished by
diaphragm.
When it contracts, the dome is flattened, causing the
volume of the thoracic cavity to increase, resulting in
Abdominal Wall Muscles

• Linea Alba - tendinous area of abdominal wall that consist of

white connective tissue rather than a muscle.
• Tendinous Intersection - cross the rectus abdominis at 3 or
more location, causing the abdominal wall of a lean, well-
muscled person to appear segmented.

• Rectus Abdominis – located on each side of linea alba; flexes

vertebral column and compresses abdomen.
3 layers of muscle lateral to the rectus abdominis:

1. External abdominal oblique – compresses abdomen, flexes

and
rotates vertebral column

2. Internal abdominal oblique - compresses abdomen, flexes

and
rotates vertebral column

3. Transversus abdominis – compresses abdomen

Pelvic floor and Perineal muscles

• Pelvis a ring of bone with an inferior opening that is closed by a

muscular floor through which the anus and the openings of the
urinary tract and reproductive tract penetrate.

• Pelvic floor - referred to as the pelvic diaphragm formed by the

levator ani muscle.

• Levator ani - elevates anus and support pelvic viscera

• Perineum - area inferior to the pelvic floor which contains a

number of muscles associated with the male or female
reproductive structures.
Perineum Muscles:

• Bulbospongiosus – contricts urethra and erects penis and

clitoris

• Ischiocavernosus – compresses bases of penis or clitoris

• External anal sphincter – keeps orifice of anal canal closed

• Transverse Perinei
• Deep - supports pelvic floor
• Superficial – fixes central tendon
UPPER LIMB MUSCLES
 It consists of muscles that attach the:
1. limb
2. pectoral girdle to the body
3. arm,
4. forearm
5. and hand
Scapular Movement

• Trapezius - elevates, depresses, retracts, rotates, and fixes

scapula; extends neck.

• Levator Scapulae - elevates, retracts, and rotates scapula;

laterally flexes neck

• Rhomboids
Major - retracts, rotates, and fixes scapula,
Minor – retracts, slightly elevates, rotates and fixes scapula

• Serratus anterior - rotates and protracts scapula; elevates

ribs
• Pectoralis minor - depresses scapula or elevates ribs

Note:
• These muscles are important for scapular attachment and
movement.

• Act as fixators to hold scapula firmly in position when the muscles

of the arm contract .

• Move scapula into different positions, thereby increasing range of

movement of the upper limb.
Arm Movements

• Pectoralis major – adducts and medially rotates the arm and

flexes the shoulder. It can extend the shoulder from a flexed
position. It forms the upper chest.

• Latissimus dorsi – medially rotates and adducts the arm and

powerfully extends the shoulder. Often called as “swimmer’s
muscle”.

• Deltoid – attaches the humerus to the scapula and clavicle and

the major abductor of the upper limb. It flexes, extends shoulder,
abducts and medially and laterally rotates arm. It forms the
rounded mass of the shoulder and common site for administering
injections.
• Teres major – extends shoulder; adducts and medially rotates
arm

• Rotator cuff muscles – stabilize the shoulder joint by holding

the head of the humerus in the glenoid cavity during arm
movements, especially abduction. These muscles form a cuff or
cap over the proximal humerus.

• Infraspinatus - stabilizes and extends shoulder and laterally

rotates arm
• Subscapularis - stabilizes and extends shoulder and
mediallyrotates arm
• Supraspinatus - stabilizes shoulder and abducts arm
• Teres Minor - stabilizes and extends shoulder; adducts and
laterally rotates arm
Arm Muscles

• Triceps Brachii – primary extensor of the elbow, extends

shoulder and adducts arm. It occupies the posterior
compartment.

• Biceps Brachii – flexes elbow, supinates forearm and flexes

shoulder. It is found in the anterior compartment of the arm.

• Brachialis – primary flexors of the elbow, anterior compartment

of the arm
Supination and Pronation

• Supinator – supinates the forearm, turning the flexed

forearm so that the palm is up.
• Biceps brachii - tend to supinate the forearm while flexing
the elbow.

• 2 pronator muscles – pronates, turning the forearm so

that the palm is down
Wrist and Finger Movements

• 20 muscles of the forearm can also be divided into anterior and

posterior groups.
• Most of the anterior forearm muscles are responsible for
flexion of the wrist and fingers
• Most of the posterior forearm muscles - responsible for
extension of the wrist and fingers

• Retinaculum - strong band of fibrous connective tissue that

covers the flexor and extensor tendons and hold them in place
around wrist so they do not “bowstring” during muscle
contraction.
Forearm Muscles

Anterior Forearm
• Palmaris Longus - tightens skin of palm

• Flexor carpi radialis - flexes and abducts wrist. The tendon of the
flexor carpi radialis serves as a landmark for locating the radial
pulse .

• Flexor carpi ulnaris - flexes and adducts wrist

• Flexor digitorum profundus - flexes fingers and wrist

• Flexor digitorum superficialis - flexes fingers and wrist

• Pronator
• Quadrants – pronates forearm
•
Posterior Forearm

• Branchioradialis –posterior forearm muscle, helps flex the

elbow

• Extensor carpi radialis brevis – extends and abducts wrist

• Extensor carpi radialis longus - extends and abducts wrist

• Extensor capi ulnaris - extends and adducts wrist

• Extensor digitorum – extends fingers and wrist

• Supinator – supinates forearm (and hand)

• Tennis Elbow – forceful repeated contraction of the wrist
extensor muscles, as occurs in a tennis backhand, may result in
inflammation and pain where the extensor muscles attach to the
lateral humeral epicondyle.

• Thumb has its own set of flexors, extensors, adductors,

abductors and also with the little finger.

• Intrinsic hand muscles - 19 muscles located within the

hand.

• Interossei muscles - located between the metacarpal

bones, responsible for abduction and adduction of the
fingers.
LOWER LIMBS
Muscles in the lower limb include:
 Hips
 Thigh
 Leg
 Foot
Thigh Movements

• Illiopsoas – anterior muscle and flexes the hip

• Gluteal muscles – located posteriorly and lateral hip muscles

• Gluteus maximus – extends the hip and abducts, laterally
rotates the thigh. It contributes to the mass that can be seen as
the buttocks. It functions optimally to extend the hip when thigh
is flexed at a 45 degree angle.
• Gluteus medius - abducts and medially rotates the thigh,
creates a smaller mass just superior and lateral to the maximus.
Common site for injections in the buttocks because the sciatic
nerve lies deep to gluteus maximus and could be damaged
during injections.
• Gluteus minimus - abducts and medially rotates the thigh
• Tensor fasciae latae – together with the gluteal muscles its is
found in the posterior and lateral hip muscle. It tenses a thick
band of fascia on the lateral side of the thigh called iliotibial
tract.
It helps steady the femur on the tibia when a person is
standing. It also flexes hip, medially rotates and abducts thigh.

3 groups of thigh muscles:

1. Anterior thigh muscles – flex the hip

2. Posterior thigh muscles – extend the hip

3. Medial thigh muscles – adduct the hip

Muscles of the Hip and Thigh
Leg Movements

Anterior Compartment:
• Quadriceps Femoris - muscles that are primary extensors of the
knee.
• Rectus Femoris – extends knee and flexes hip

• Vastus lateralis – extends the knee; health professionals often

use as an intramuscular injection site.

• Vastus medialis – extends the knee

• Vastus intermedius – extends the knee

• Sartorius - longest muscle in the body. It is called as the “tailors

muscles” because it flexes the hip and knee and rotates the thigh
laterally for sitting crossed-legged, as tailors used to sit while
Posterior Compartment:

• Hamstring muscles – posterior thigh muscles, responsible for

flexing the knee. It is named because these tendons in hogs or pigs
could be used to suspend hams during curing.

• Biceps femoris – flexes knee, laterally rotates leg and extends

hip

• Semimembranosus - flexes knee, medially rotates leg and

extends hip

• Semitendinosus - flexes knee, medially rotates leg and extends

hip
Medial Compartment

• Adductor muscles – medial thigh muscles, primarily involved in

adducting the thigh.
Adductor Longus – adducts and laterally rotates thigh and
flexes hip

Adductor Magnus - adducts and laterally rotates thigh

and extends hip

Gracilis – adducts thigh and flexes knee

Ankle and Toe Movements

• 13 muscles in the leg, with tendons, extending into the foot, can be
divided into 3 groups:
1. Anterior – extensor muscles involved in dorsiflexion (extension)
of the foot and extension of the toes.
2. Posterior – its superficial muscles, the gastrocnemius and
soleus, form the bulge of the calf. These 2 join to form the common
calcaneal tendon or archilles tendon. These muscles are flexors
and are involved in plantar flexion of the foot. The deep muscles
flex the plantar, invert the foot and flex the toes.
3. Lateral – fibularis mucles, primarily everters (turning the lateral
side of the foot outward) of the foot, but they also aid in plantar
flexion during locomotion.
Muscles of the Leg, ankle and foot

Anterior Compartment

• Extensor digitorum longus – extends four lateral toes;

dorsiflexes and everts foot

• Extensor halluces longus - extends great toes; dorsiflexes and

inverts foot

• Tibialis anterior – dorsiflexes and inverts foot

• Fibularis tertius - dorsiflexes and everts foot

Posterior Compartment

Superficial
Gastrocnemius – plantar flexes and flexes leg

Soleus – plantar flexes foot

Deep
Flexor digitorum longus – flexes four lateral toes; plantar
flexes and inverts foot

Flexor halluces longus – flexes great toe; plantar flexes and

inverts foot

Tibialis posterior – plantar flexes and inverts foot

Lateral Compartment

Fibularis brevis – everts and plantar flexes foot

Fibularis longus – everts and plantar flexes foot

SUPERFICIAL MUSCLES OF THE
 EFFECT OF AGING ON
SKELETAL MUSCLE
 Reduction in muscle mass, slower response time for muscle
contraction, reduction in stamina and increase recovery time.

 Loss of muscle fibers begins as early as 25 years old

 Muscle mass has been reduced by approximately 50% at the age of 80

yrs. old

 Weight-lifting exercises help slow the loss of muscle mass but do not
prevent the loss of muscle fibers.
• Fast-twitch muscle fibers decrease in number more rapidly than slow-
twitch fibers.

• Surface area of the neuromuscular junction decreases, results is that

action potentials in neurons stimulate action potentials in muscle
cells more slowly.

• Decrease in the density of capillaries in skeletal muscles

Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy

• slow motor development with progressive weakness and muscle

wasting (atrophy)
• muscular weakness begins in the pelvic girdle causing a
waddling gait
• caused by weakness of the lumbar and gluteal muscles
• results from an abnormal gene on X chromosomes
• affects males almost exclusively, at a frequency of 1 in 3000.
• DMD gene is responsible for producing a protein called
dystrophin
• Dystrophin- plays a role in attaching myofibrils to other
proteins in the cell membrane and regulating their activity.

• In normal individual, dystrophin is thought to protect muscle

cells against mechanical stress.

• In DMD patients, part of the gene is missing, and the protein it

produces is nonfunctional, resulting in progressive muscular
weakness and muscle contraction.
 REPRESENTATIVE DISEASES AND
DISORDER : MUSCULAR SYSTEM
 Cramps - painful ,spastic contractions of a muscle; usually due
to a buildup of lactic acid
 Fibromyalgia - non-life threating chronic, widespread pain in
muscles with no known cure, known as chronic muscle pain
syndrome.
 Hypertrophy - enlargement of a muscle due to an increased
number of myofilaments.
 Atrophy - decreased in muscle size due to decrease number of
myofilaments.
• Muscular dystrophy - group of genetic disorder in which all types
of muscle degenerate and atrophy

• Duchenne muscular dystrophy - slow motor development with

progressive weakness and muscle wasting

• Myotonic muscular dystrophy - muscle are weak and fail to

relax following forceful contraction, affects the hands most
severely

• Tendinitis - inflammation of a tendon or its attachment point, due to

overuse of the muscle