PHYS1122

University
Physics II
Chapter 6: Photons: Light
waves behaving as particles

Credits: Picsart
Few announcements: Mid-term
• Reading week: March 4-9
• Lectures by Lin Lap Ming: March 11 and 13
• Mid-term scheduled tentatively:
oMarch 20 (Wednesday) during class hours, 12:30-2:30
oContent: All content up to March 1 (Chapters 1-7)
oRevision Plan: We will release a set of revision questions
during the start of the reading week. Some of them will be
in the exam.

Image credits: H.D. Young, R.A. Freedman, University Physics with Modern Physics; Wikimedia
Outline
Chapter 6: Photons, electrons, and atoms
1. Light absorbed as photons: The photoelectric effect
2. Light emitted as photons: X-ray production
3. Light scattered as photons: Compton scattering and pair production
4. Wave-particle duality, probability, and uncertainty

Image credits: H.D. Young, R.A. Freedman, University Physics with Modern Physics; Wikimedia
Recap • Photons: Photons behave both as waves and particles.
The energy in electromagnetic waves is carried in units
(photons). The energy of photon is proportional to
frequency and Planck's constant
• Photoelectric effect: A surface can eject an electron by
absorbing a photon with energy greater or equal to
work function. The stopping potential is the voltage
required to stop current and ejected electrons.
• Photon production, scattering, and pair production: X
rays can be produced when electrons are accelerated to
high energies. The photon model explains why
maximum frequency and minimum wavelength are
given by left Eq. In compton scattering, a photon
transfers some of its energy and momentum to an
electron with which it collides. In pair production, a
high-energy photon can disappear and be replaced by
an electron-positron pair.
Image credits: H.D. Young, R.A. Freedman, University Physics with Modern Physics; Wikimedia
3. Compton scattering and pair production
• The final test of Einstein's photon model is
scattering
• Describes behavior after the photon is
emitted and before it is re-absorbed

Image credits: H.D. Young, R.A. Freedman, University Physics with Modern Physics; Wikimedia
3. Compton scattering
• Wave-Model Prediction: In the wave model,
Compton scattering involves absorption and
re-radiation of light energy by oscillating
electrons, resulting in scattered light with the
same frequency and wavelength as the
incident light.
• Photon-Model Prediction: Scattering viewed
as a collision between an incident photon and
an initially stationary electron. Scattered light
has lower frequency than the incident light
due to energy and momentum transfer.

Image credits: H.D. Young, R.A. Freedman, University Physics with Modern Physics; Wikimedia
3. Compton effect experiment
• Experiment: The definitive experiment that
tested these predictions was carried out in
1922 by the Arthur H. Compton. He aimed a
beam of x rays at a solid target and measured
the wavelength of the radiation scattered
from the target (left).

Image credits: H.D. Young, R.A. Freedman, University Physics with Modern Physics; Wikimedia
3. Compton effect experiment
• Experiment: The definitive experiment that
tested these predictions was carried out in
1922 by the Arthur H. Compton. He aimed a
beam of x rays at a solid target and measured
the wavelength of the radiation scattered
from the target (left).
• He found:

Image credits: H.D. Young, R.A. Freedman, University Physics with Modern Physics; Wikimedia
3. Compton effect experiment
• Experiment: The definitive experiment that
tested these predictions was carried out in
1922 by the Arthur H. Compton. He aimed a
beam of x rays at a solid target and measured
the wavelength of the radiation scattered
from the target (left).
• He found:

• How should we understand the effect?

Image credits: H.D. Young, R.A. Freedman, University Physics with Modern Physics; Wikimedia
3. Compton effect experiment
• Experiment: The definitive experiment that
tested these predictions was carried out in
1922 by the Arthur H. Compton. He aimed a
beam of x rays at a solid target and measured
the wavelength of the radiation scattered
from the target (left).
• He found:

• How should we understand the effect?

Image credits: H.D. Young, R.A. Freedman, University Physics with Modern Physics; Wikimedia
3. Compton effect experiment: Derivation
• Energy conservation tells us:

Image credits: H.D. Young, R.A. Freedman, University Physics with Modern Physics; Wikimedia
3. Compton effect experiment: Derivation
• Energy conservation tells us:

• Momentum conservation:

Image credits: H.D. Young, R.A. Freedman, University Physics with Modern Physics; Wikimedia
3. Compton effect experiment: Derivation
• Energy conservation tells us:

• Momentum conservation:

• Substitute to energy conservation, results:

Image credits: H.D. Young, R.A. Freedman, University Physics with Modern Physics; Wikimedia
3. Compton effect experiment: Derivation
• Energy conservation tells us:

• Momentum conservation:

• Substitute to energy conservation, results:

• Since

Image credits: H.D. Young, R.A. Freedman, University Physics with Modern Physics; Wikimedia
3. Compton effect experiment: Derivation
• Note: It is assumed that the target electrons
are loosely bound, or rather that the energy
of the x-rays is much higher than the binding
energy of the electrons
o Compton used graphite
o If this is not the case, then the mass in the
compton scattering should be the atom mass

Image credits: H.D. Young, R.A. Freedman, University Physics with Modern Physics; Wikimedia
3. Compton effect experiment: Concept questions
• In a Compton scattering experiment, X-rays of
known wavelength are directed at a target
material. Which of the following statements
best describes the outcome of Compton
scattering?
a) The scattered X-rays have shorter
wavelengths and higher energies than the
incident X-rays.
b) The scattered X-rays have longer wavelengths
and lower energies than the incident X-rays.
c) The scattered X-rays have the same
wavelength and energy as the incident X-rays.

Image credits: H.D. Young, R.A. Freedman, University Physics with Modern Physics; Wikimedia
3. Compton effect experiment: Concept questions
• In a Compton scattering experiment, X-rays of
known wavelength are directed at a target
material. Which of the following statements
best describes the outcome of Compton
scattering?
a) The scattered X-rays have shorter
wavelengths and higher energies than the
incident X-rays.
b) The scattered X-rays have longer
wavelengths and lower energies than the
incident X-rays.
c) The scattered X-rays have the same
wavelength and energy as the incident X-rays.

Image credits: H.D. Young, R.A. Freedman, University Physics with Modern Physics; Wikimedia
3. Compton effect experiment: Concept questions
• In a Compton scattering experiment, if the
angle of scattering increases, what is most
likely to happen to the energy and wavelength
of the scattered X-rays?
a) The energy increases, and the wavelength
decreases.
b) The energy decreases, and the wavelength
increases.
c) The energy remains constant, and the
wavelength decreases.

Image credits: H.D. Young, R.A. Freedman, University Physics with Modern Physics; Wikimedia
3. Compton effect experiment: Concept questions
• In a Compton scattering experiment, if the angle
of scattering increases, what is most likely to
happen to the energy and wavelength of the
scattered X-rays?
a) The energy increases, and the wavelength
decreases.
b) The energy decreases, and the wavelength
increases.
c) The energy remains constant, and the
wavelength decreases.
More energy and momentum are transferred
from the incident X-ray photons to the electrons
in the target material. Consequently, the
scattered X-rays lose energy and have longer
wavelengths
Image credits: H.D. Young, R.A. Freedman, University Physics compared
with Modern Physics; Wikimediato the incident X-rays.
3. Compton effect experiment: Concept questions
You use 0.124 nm x-ray photons in a Compton-
scattering experiment. At what angle is the
wavelength of the scattered x rays 1.0% longer
than that of the incident x rays? At what angle
is it 0.050% longer?
a) 30 degrees, 65 degrees
b) 61 degrees, 13 degrees
c) 70 degrees, 5 degrees

Image credits: H.D. Young, R.A. Freedman, University Physics with Modern Physics; Wikimedia
3. Compton effect experiment: Concept questions
You use 0.124 nm x-ray photons in a Compton-
scattering experiment. At what angle is the
wavelength of the scattered x rays 1.0% longer
than that of the incident x rays? At what angle
is it 0.050% longer?
a) 30 degrees, 65 degrees
b) 61 degrees, 13 degrees
c) 70 degrees, 5 degrees

Image credits: H.D. Young, R.A. Freedman, University Physics with Modern Physics; Wikimedia
3. Pair production
• If photons are made of very high frequency (gamma
rays), when it is fired at a target, it may pair produce:
Disappear and create electron, positron pairs.
• Charge must be conserved, so one has positive, one
negative charge
• Why gamma rays?
o Conservation of energy implies that photon energy must
be greater than the rest mass of the two:
Leads to:

• Inverse is also possible: Pairs produce two gamma

rays
o One photon is not possible due to energy/momentum
conservation
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3. Pair production
• An electron and a positron, initially far apart, move
toward each other with the same speed. They collide
head-on, annihilating each other and producing two
photons. Find the ­frequencies of the photons if the
initial kinetic energies of the electron and positron
are both 5.000 MeV. The rest ­energy of an electron
or a positron is 0.511 MeV.
a) 1.3 x 10^21 Hz
b) 1.6 x 10^18 Hz
c) 1000 Hz
d) 1.8 x 10^14 Hz

Image credits: H.D. Young, R.A. Freedman, University Physics with Modern Physics; Wikimedia
3. Pair production
• An electron and a positron, initially far apart, move
toward each other with the same speed. They collide
head-on, annihilating each other and producing two
photons. Find the ­frequencies of the photons if the
initial kinetic energies of the electron and positron
are both 5.000 MeV. The rest ­energy of an electron
or a positron is 0.511 MeV.
a) 1.3 x 10^21 Hz
b) 1.6 x 10^18 Hz
c) 1000 Hz
d) 1.8 x 10^14 Hz

Image credits: H.D. Young, R.A. Freedman, University Physics with Modern Physics; Wikimedia
3. Pair production: MC Questions
Why is a nearby nucleus required for pair creation?
a) Mass must be conserved
b) Momentum must be conserved
c) Energy must be conserved
d) Causality must be conserved

Image credits: H.D. Young, R.A. Freedman, University Physics with Modern Physics; Wikimedia
3. Pair production: MC Questions
Why is a nearby nucleus required for pair creation?
a) Mass must be conserved
b) Momentum must be conserved
c) Energy must be conserved
d) Causality must be conserved

Image credits: H.D. Young, R.A. Freedman, University Physics with Modern Physics; Wikimedia
3. Pair production: MC Questions
Why is a nearby nucleus required for pair creation?
a) Mass must be conserved
b) Momentum must be conserved
c) Energy must be conserved
d) Causality must be conserved

Image credits: H.D. Young, R.A. Freedman, University Physics with Modern Physics; Wikimedia
3. Pair production: MC Questions
Why is a nearby nucleus required for pair creation?
a) Mass must be conserved
b) Momentum must be conserved
c) Energy must be conserved
d) Causality must be conserved

Image credits: H.D. Young, R.A. Freedman, University Physics with Modern Physics; Wikimedia
Recap • Photons: Photons behave both as waves and particles.
The energy in electromagnetic waves is carried in units
(photons). The energy of photon is proportional to
frequency and Planck's constant
• Photoelectric effect: A surface can eject an electron by
absorbing a photon with energy greater or equal to
work function. The stopping potential is the voltage
required to stop current and ejected electrons.
• Photon production, scattering, and pair production: X
rays can be produced when electrons are accelerated to
high energies. The photon model explains why
maximum frequency and minimum wavelength are
given by left Eq. In compton scattering, a photon
transfers some of its energy and momentum to an
electron with which it collides. In pair production, a
high-energy photon can disappear and be replaced by
an electron-positron pair.
Image credits: H.D. Young, R.A. Freedman, University Physics with Modern Physics; Wikimedia
Outline
Chapter 6: Photons, electrons, and atoms
1. Light absorbed as photons: The photoelectric effect
2. Light emitted as photons: X-ray production
3. Light scattered as photons: Compton scattering and pair production
4. Wave-particle duality, probability, and uncertainty

Image credits: H.D. Young, R.A. Freedman, University Physics with Modern Physics; Wikimedia
Prelude: Single slit: Intensity of light – MC Q
MC Question: How does the intensity of
light vary across a single-slit diffraction
pattern? What factors influence this
intensity distribution?
Choose the correct ones--
a) Increasing frequency (decreasing
wavelength) increases the frequency of
the bright spots
b) Increasing slit width increases
frequency of bright spots
c) Varying the wavelength will vary the
intensity of each bright spot
Image credits: H.D. Young, R.A. Freedman, University Physics with Modern Physics; Wikimedia
Prelude: Single slit: Intensity of light – MC Q
MC Question: How does the intensity of
light vary across a single-slit diffraction
pattern? What factors influence this
intensity distribution?
Choose the correct ones--
a) Increasing frequency (decreasing
wavelength) increases the frequency of
the bright spots
b) Increasing slit width increases
frequency of bright spots
c) Varying the wavelength will vary the
intensity of each bright spot
Image credits: H.D. Young, R.A. Freedman, University Physics with Modern Physics; Wikimedia
Prelude: Single slit: Intensity of light – MC Q
MC Question: Where do the dark spots
appear?
a) pi*a*sin(theta)/lambda~n*pi
b) pi*a*sin(theta)/lambda~2*n*pi
c) pi*a*sin(theta)/lambda~n*pi for n≠ 0
d) pi*a*sin(theta)/lambda~n*pi /2
e) pi*a*sin(theta)/lambda~n*pi /2 for n≠
0

Image credits: H.D. Young, R.A. Freedman, University Physics with Modern Physics; Wikimedia
Prelude: Single slit: Intensity of light – MC Q
If (∫sin^2(x)/x^2 dx from –pi to pi) is 2.83
& (∫sin^2(x)/x^2 dx from –∞ to ∞) is 3.14
What fraction of photons are in the central
bright spot on the left?
a) It depends on the width of the slit and
the wavelength of the photon
b) It's always ~90%

Image credits: H.D. Young, R.A. Freedman, University Physics with Modern Physics; Wikimedia
4. Wave-particle duality
• Light exhibits both wave and particle behavior,
demonstrated through interference and diffraction
effects as well as phenomena indicating its particle
nature.
• Niels Bohr's principle of complementarity resolves
the wave-particle conflict by stating that wave and
particle descriptions of light are complementary and
both necessary to understand nature, although they
are not simultaneously applied to describe a single
occurrence.

Image credits: H.D. Young, R.A. Freedman, University Physics with Modern Physics; Wikimedia
4. Wave-particle duality
• Consider earlier diffraction experiment
(slit) with a modification:
o The screen is replaced by a movable
photomultiplier detector
o Counts the number of photons
• What would happen on the screen?

Image credits: H.D. Young, R.A. Freedman, University Physics with Modern Physics; Wikimedia
4. Wave-particle duality
• Consider earlier diffraction experiment
(slit) with a modification:
o The screen is replaced by a movable
photomultiplier detector
o Counts the number of photons
• What would happen on the screen?

Image credits: H.D. Young, R.A. Freedman, University Physics with Modern Physics; Wikimedia
4. Wave-particle duality: Interpreting slit experiments
• Suppose wavelength is much less
than slit width
o Then most of the photonsgo into
central maximum of diffraction
pattern, and the remainder go into
other parts of the pattern
• For small angles

• There are fundamental

uncertainties in both the position
and momentum of individual
particles:

Image credits: H.D. Young, R.A. Freedman, University Physics with Modern Physics; Wikimedia
4. Wave-particle duality: Interpreting slit experiments
• Suppose wavelength is much less
than slit width
o Then most of the photons go into
central maximum of diffraction pattern,
and the remainder go into other parts
of the pattern
• For small angles
• MC Question: What is the
distribution of photon momenta py in
the central maximum?
a) py=±px lambda/2a
b) py=±h/a
c) py=±∞
d) Something else
Image credits: H.D. Young, R.A. Freedman, University Physics with Modern Physics; Wikimedia
4. Wave-particle duality: Interpreting slit experiments
• Suppose wavelength is much less
than slit width
o Then most of the photons go into
central maximum of diffraction pattern,
and the remainder go into other parts
of the pattern
• For small angles
• MC Question: What is the
distribution of photon momenta py in
the central maximum?
a) py=±px lambda/2a
b) py=±h/a
c) py=±∞
d) Something else
Image credits: H.D. Young, R.A. Freedman, University Physics with Modern Physics; Wikimedia
4. Wave-particle duality: Interpreting slit experiments

• Derivation:
• 1st dark spot:
• Tangent rule:

• Thus, at first
dark spot:
• Since,

• Taking this as a lower limit,

Image credits: H.D. Young, R.A. Freedman, University Physics with Modern Physics; Wikimedia
4. Interpreting slit experiments – MC Question

How should we interpret the results?

Choose the correct one(s).
a) Reducing the slit width increases the
uncertainty in photon momentum
b) Reducing the slit width decreases the
uncertainty in photon momentum
c) Reducing the slit width decreases the
uncertainty in photon position
d) Reducing the slit width increases the
uncertainty in photon position

Image credits: H.D. Young, R.A. Freedman, University Physics with Modern Physics; Wikimedia
4. Interpreting slit experiments – MC Question

How should we interpret the results?

Choose the correct one(s).
a) Reducing the slit width increases the
uncertainty in photon momentum
b) Reducing the slit width decreases the
uncertainty in photon momentum
c) Reducing the slit width decreases the
uncertainty in photon position at the
slit
d) Reducing the slit width increases the
uncertainty in photon position at the slit

Image credits: H.D. Young, R.A. Freedman, University Physics with Modern Physics; Wikimedia
4. Interpreting slit experiments – MC Question

How should we interpret the results?

Choose the correct one(s).
a) Reducing the slit width increases the
uncertainty in photon momentum
b) Reducing the slit width decreases the
uncertainty in photon momentum
c) Reducing the slit width decreases the
uncertainty in photon position at the slit
d) Reducing the slit width increases the
uncertainty in photon position at the slit

Image credits: H.D. Young, R.A. Freedman, University Physics with Modern Physics; Wikimedia
4. Interpreting slit experiments
• In more general discussions, we
typically use the standard deviation
(68%) to describe uncertainties (not
90% confidence).
• Using the standard deviation,

• With

Image credits: H.D. Young, R.A. Freedman, University Physics with Modern Physics; Wikimedia
4. Interpreting slit experiments

• Above is one form of Heisenberg

uncertainty principle.
• It turns out that the uncertainty
derived here through
rudimentary/simplistic arguments is
a consequence of a more
fundamental principle of nature
• A particle's position cannot even in
principle be known to greater
certainty.
Image credits: H.D. Young, R.A. Freedman, University Physics with Modern Physics; Wikimedia
4. Interpreting slit experiments

• One can derive the same result for

different combinations:

• So there is of course nothing special

about the x-axis.

Image credits: H.D. Young, R.A. Freedman, University Physics with Modern Physics; Wikimedia
4. Plane wave localisation in space: Building intuition
• What is the momentum of the photon wave
on the left?
• The wave number
• And angular frequency
a) h/2pi
b) hk/2pi
c) w/2pi

Image credits: H.D. Young, R.A. Freedman, University Physics with Modern Physics; Wikimedia
4. Plane wave localisation in space: Building intuition
• What is the momentum of the photon wave
on the left?
• The wave number
• And angular frequency
a) h/2pi
b) hk/2pi
c) w/2pi

Image credits: H.D. Young, R.A. Freedman, University Physics with Modern Physics; Wikimedia
4. Plane wave localisation in space: Building intuition
• Alternatively, one can start with the
electromagnetic wave (left)
• The wave number
• And angular frequency
• The momentum and energies:

• We can rewrite our photon wave Eq. As

• In this case, since momentum is known, the

location of the particle x is unknown
Image credits: H.D. Young, R.A. Freedman, University Physics with Modern Physics; Wikimedia
4. "Beating" wave localisation in space: Building intuition

• At a particular instant in time,

• Now the momentum is either of the two

values.
• However, we have some idea of where the
wave could be (at the places with the
highest wave amplitude)
• Making the momentum a tiny bit more
certain made the position more certain.

Image credits: H.D. Young, R.A. Freedman, University Physics with Modern Physics; Wikimedia
4. "Beating" wave localisation in space: Building intuition

• At a particular instant in time,

• The momentum is either of the two values.

• However, we have some idea of where the
wave could be (at the places with the
highest wave amplitude)
• Making the momentum a tiny bit more
certain made the position more certain.

Image credits: H.D. Young, R.A. Freedman, University Physics with Modern Physics; Wikimedia
4. "Beating" wave energy: Building intuition

• At a particular instant in space (x=0) we

place a monitor for photons. The field

• The photon is now localised in both space

and in time. When the amplitude is large, it
is more likely that the photon appears.
• The energy is either E1 or E2
• For a plane wave, the amplitude does not
modulate, so the photon time localisation is
entirely uncertain.
Image credits: H.D. Young, R.A. Freedman, University Physics with Modern Physics; Wikimedia
4. "Beating" wave energy: Building intuition

• At a particular instant in space (x=0) we

place a monitor for photons. The field

• The photon is now localised in both space

and in time. When the amplitude is large, it
is more likely that the photon appears.
• The energy is either E1 or E2
• For a plane wave, the amplitude does not
modulate, so the photon time localisation is
entirely uncertain.
Image credits: H.D. Young, R.A. Freedman, University Physics with Modern Physics; Wikimedia
4. Ultrashort laser pulse – MC Question
Many varieties of lasers emit light in pulses.
Suppose a tellurium-sapphire laser with
wavelength of 800nm produces a short pulse of
around 4 femtoseconds (10^-15 s). The energy
in the pulse is 2 μJ. What is the minimum
energy uncertainty?
a) 10^-20 J
b) 10^-22 J
c) 10^-17 J

Image credits: H.D. Young, R.A. Freedman, University Physics with Modern Physics; Wikimedia
4. Ultrashort laser pulse – MC Question
Many varieties of lasers emit light in pulses.
Suppose a tellurium-sapphire laser with
wavelength of 800nm produces a short pulse of
around 4 femtoseconds (10^-15 s). The energy
in the pulse is 2 μJ. What is the minimum
energy uncertainty?
a) 10^-20 J
b) 10^-22 J
c) 10^-17 J
The frequency of the photon is 3.75x10^14 Hz.
Energy is 2.48 x 10^-19 J. The pulse
duration Δt=4x10^-15 s. The minimum
uncertainty in energy
Image credits: H.D. Young, R.A. Freedman, University Physics with Modern Physics; Wikimedia
4. Ultrashort laser pulse – MC Question
Many varieties of lasers emit light in pulses.
Suppose a tellurium-sapphire laser with
wavelength of 800nm produces a short pulse of
around 4 femtoseconds (10^-15 s). The energy
in the pulse is 2 μJ. What is the minimum
frequency uncertainty?
a) 2 x 10^11 Hz
b) 2 x 10^12 Hz
c) 2 x 10^13 Hz

Image credits: H.D. Young, R.A. Freedman, University Physics with Modern Physics; Wikimedia
4. Ultrashort laser pulse – MC Question
Many varieties of lasers emit light in pulses.
Suppose a tellurium-sapphire laser with
wavelength of 800nm produces a short pulse of
around 4 femtoseconds (10^-15 s). The energy
in the pulse is 2 μJ. What is the minimum
frequency uncertainty?
a) 2 x 10^11 Hz
b) 2 x 10^12 Hz
c) 2 x 10^13 Hz

Image credits: H.D. Young, R.A. Freedman, University Physics with Modern Physics; Wikimedia
4. Ultrashort laser pulse – MC Question
Many varieties of lasers emit light in pulses.
Suppose a tellurium-sapphire laser with
wavelength of 800nm produces a short pulse of
around 4 femtoseconds (10^-15 s). The energy
in the pulse is 2 μJ. What is the spatial length of
the pulse?
a) 3/2 wavelengths
b) 4/3 wavelengths
c) 3 wavelengths

Image credits: H.D. Young, R.A. Freedman, University Physics with Modern Physics; Wikimedia
4. Ultrashort laser pulse – MC Question
Many varieties of lasers emit light in pulses.
Suppose a tellurium-sapphire laser with
wavelength of 800nm produces a short pulse of
around 4 femtoseconds (10^-15 s). The energy
in the pulse is 2 μJ. What is the spatial length of
the pulse?
a) 3/2 wavelengths
b) 4/3 wavelengths
c) 3 wavelengths

Image credits: H.D. Young, R.A. Freedman, University Physics with Modern Physics; Wikimedia
4. Ultrashort laser pulse – MC Question
Many varieties of lasers emit light in pulses.
Suppose a tellurium-sapphire laser with
wavelength of 800nm produces a short pulse of
around 4 femtoseconds (10^-15 s). The energy
in the pulse is 2 μJ. What is the momentum
uncertainty in percentage?
a) 5%
b) 10%
c) 50%

Image credits: H.D. Young, R.A. Freedman, University Physics with Modern Physics; Wikimedia
4. Ultrashort laser pulse – MC Question
Many varieties of lasers emit light in pulses.
Suppose a tellurium-sapphire laser with
wavelength of 800nm produces a short pulse of
around 4 femtoseconds (10^-15 s). The energy
in the pulse is 2 μJ. What is the momentum
uncertainty in percentage?
a) 5%
b) 10%
c) 50%

Image credits: H.D. Young, R.A. Freedman, University Physics with Modern Physics; Wikimedia
4. Ultrashort laser pulse – MC Question
Many varieties of lasers emit light in pulses.
Suppose a tellurium-sapphire laser with
wavelength of 800nm produces a short pulse of
around 4 femtoseconds (10^-15 s). The energy
in the pulse is 2 μJ. What is the uncertainty in
the number of photons in a pulse?
a) 4 x 10^15
b) 4 x 10^9
c) 4 x 10^11

Image credits: H.D. Young, R.A. Freedman, University Physics with Modern Physics; Wikimedia
4. Ultrashort laser pulse – MC Question
Many varieties of lasers emit light in pulses.
Suppose a tellurium-sapphire laser with
wavelength of 800nm produces a short pulse of
around 4 femtoseconds (10^-15 s). The energy
in the pulse is 2 μJ. What is the uncertainty in
the number of photons in a pulse?
a) 4 x 10^15
b) 4 x 10^9
c) 4 x 10^11
The total number of photons:

The uncertainty in energy is around 5%, so

multiplied by 0.05.
Image credits: H.D. Young, R.A. Freedman, University Physics with Modern Physics; Wikimedia
Recap • Photons: Photons behave both as waves and particles. The energy
in electromagnetic waves is carried in units (photons). The energy
of photon is proportional to frequency and Planck's constant
• Photoelectric effect: A surface can eject an electron by absorbing a
photon with energy greater or equal to work function. The
stopping potential is the voltage required to stop current and
ejected electrons.
• Photon production, scattering, and pair production: X rays can be
produced when electrons are accelerated to high energies. The
photon model explains why maximum frequency and minimum
wavelength are given by left Eq. In compton scattering, a photon
transfers some of its energy and momentum to an electron with
which it collides. In pair production, a high-energy photon can
disappear and be replaced by an electron-positron pair.
• Heisenberg uncertainty principle: It is impossible to determine a
photon's position/momentum and energy/time simultaneously to
arbitrary precision. Instead, these are limited by the Heisenberg
uncertainty principle.

Image credits: H.D. Young, R.A. Freedman, University Physics with Modern Physics; Wikimedia