Chapter 1

Introduction to Research

Slide 1-2
 Definition Research
 Research is simply the process of finding solutions to a problem after a
thorough study and analysis of the situational factors.
 Research help managers in organizations to make decisions at the workplace.

 Business research: an organized and systematic inquiry or investigation into

a specific problem, undertaken with the purpose of finding answers or
solutions to it.
 Once the problem is clearly defined, steps can be taken to determine the
factors that are associated with the problem, gather information, analyze the
data, develop an explanation for the problem at hand and then solve it by
taking the necessary corrective measures.
 Business research as an organized, systematic, data‐based, critical,
objective, inquiry or investigation into a specific problem, undertaken with
the purpose of finding answers or solutions to it.
 The information provided could be the result of a careful analysis of primary
data gathered first‐hand or of secondary data.
 1-3
Slide
 Theory and Information
 Theory and information play an important role in
research.
 The term ‘theory’ can mean a lot of things,
depending on whom you ask:
 an idea or any concept, instrument, model, or
framework that helps one to think about or
solve a problem, describe a phenomenon, or
understand a topic of interest.
 To a scientist, a theory explains a certain
phenomenon.

Slide 1-4
 Applied versus Basic Research

 Basic research: generates a body of knowledge

by trying to comprehend how certain problems
that occur in organizations can be solved.

 Applied research: solves a current problem

faced by the manager in the work setting,
demanding a timely solution.

Slide 1-5
 More
More Examples
Examples of
of Research
Research Areas
Areas in
in
Business
Business

 Absenteeism
 Communication
 Motivation
 Consumer decision making
 Customer satisfaction
 Budget allocations
 Accounting procedures

Slide 1-6
 Why
Why Managers
Managers Should
Should Know
Know About
About
Research
Research
 Being knowledgeable about research and research
methods helps professional managers to:
 Identify and effectively solve minor problems in
the work setting.
 Know how to discriminate good from bad
research.
 Appreciate the multiple influences and effects of
factors imposing on a situation.
 Take calculated risks in decision making.
 Relate to hired researchers and consultants more
effectively.
 Combine experience with scientific knowledge
while making decisions.

Slide 1-7
 The
The Manager–Researcher
Manager–Researcher Relationship
Relationship

 Each should know his/her role

 Trust levels
 Acceptance of findings and
implementation
 Issues of inside versus outside
researchers/consultants

Slide 1-8
 Internal Researchers
 Advantages:
 Better acceptance from staff
 Knowledge about organization
 Would be an integral part of
implementation and evaluation of the
research recommendations.
 Disadvantages
 Less fresh ideas
 Power politics could prevail
 Possibly not valued as “expert” by staff
Slide 1-9
 External Researchers
 Advantages
 Divergent and convergent thinking
 Experience from several situations in
different organizations
 Better technical training, usually
 Disadvantages
 Takes time to know and understand the
organization
 Relationship and cooperation from staff
not easy
 Not available for evaluation and
implementation
 Costs
Slide 1-10
 Scientific Investigation
 Scientific research focuses on solving problems
and pursues a step‐by‐step logical, organized,
and rigorous method to identify the problems,
gather data, analyze them, and draw valid
conclusions from them.
 Scientific investigation tends to be more objective
than subjective, and helps managers to highlight
the most critical factors at the workplace that
need specific attention so as to avoid, minimize,
or solve problems.
Slide 14-11
 Hallmarks
Hallmarks of
of Scientific
Scientific Research:
Research:

 Hallmarks or main distinguishing

characteristics of scientific research:
 Purposiveness
 Rigor
 Testability
 Replicability
 Precision and Confidence
 Objectivity
 Generalizability
 Parsimony
Slide 2-12
 Purposiveness
Purposiveness

 The manager has started the research with a

definite aim or purpose.
 Commitment of employees to the organization, as
this will be beneficial in many ways. An increase
in employee commitment will translate into lower
turnover, less absenteeism, and probably
increased performance levels, all of which will
definitely benefit the organization. The research
thus has a purposive focus.

Slide 2-13
 Rigor
Rigor

 A good theoretical base and a sound

methodological design add rigor to a
purposive study. Rigor connotes
carefulness. In the case of our example,
let us say the manager of an organization
asks 10 to 12 of its employees to indicate
what would increase their level of
commitment to it.

Slide 2-14
 Testability
Testability

 A scientific hypothesis must be testable.

Not all hypotheses can be tested. Non‐
testable hypotheses are often vague
statements, or they put forward something
that cannot be tested experimentally.

Slide 2-15
 Replicability
Replicability

 Replication demonstrates that our

hypotheses have not been supported
merely by chance, but are reflective of the
true state of affairs in the population

Slide 2-16
 Precision
Precision and
and Confidence
Confidence

 Precision refers to the closeness of the findings to “reality” based

on a sample. In other words, precision reflects the degree of
accuracy or exactitude of the results on the basis of the sample, to
what really exists in the universe.
 Confidence refers to the probability that our estimations are
correct. That is, it is not merely enough to be precise, but it is also
important that we can confidently claim that 95% of the time our
results will be true and there is only a 5% chance of our being
wrong.

Slide 2-17
 Objectivity
Objectivity

 The conclusions drawn through the

interpretation of the results of data
analysis should be objective; that is, they
should be based on the facts of the
findings derived from actual data, and not
on our own subjective or emotional values.

Slide 2-18
 Generalizability
Generalizability

 Generalizability refers to the scope of

applicability of the research findings in one
organizational setting to other settings.

Slide 2-19
 Parsimony
Parsimony

 Parsimony can be introduced with a good

understanding of the problem and the important factors
that influence it. Such a good conceptual theoretical
model can be realized through unstructured and
structured interviews with the concerned people, and a
thorough literature review of the previous research work
in the particular problem area.

Slide 2-20
 Hypothetico-Deductive Research

 The Seven-Step Process in the

Hypothetico-Deductive Method
 Identify a broad problem area
 Define the problem statement
 Develop hypotheses
 Determine measures
 Data collection
 Data analysis
 Interpretation of data
Slide 2-21
 Deduction and Induction

 Deductive reasoning: application of a general theory

to a specific case.
 Hypothesis testing
 Mostly used in causal and quantitative studies.

 Inductive reasoning: a process where we observe

specific phenomena and on this basis arrive at
general conclusions.
 Counting white swans
 Mostly used in exploratory and qualitative studies

 Both inductive and deductive processes are often

used in research.

Slide 2-22
 Alternative
Alternative Approaches
Approaches to
to What
What
Makes
Makes Good
Good Research
Research
 Ontology is the philosophical field revolving
around (the study of) the nature of reality (all
that is or exists)
 Epistemology is the philosophical field
revolving around (the study of) knowledge
and how to reach it.

Slide 2-23
 Alternative Approaches to What
Makes Good Research
 Positivism
Positivism adheres to the view that only “factual” knowledge gained
through observation (the senses), including measurement, is
trustworthy. For a positivist, the world operates by laws of cause and
effect. They use deductive reasoning to put forward theories that they
can test by means of a fixed, predetermined research design and
objective measures.
 Constructionism
Constructionists hold the opposite view. Constructionism emphasizes
how people construct knowledge. Constructionists are particularly
interested in how people’s views of the world result from interactions
with others and the context in which they take place. The research
methods of constructionist researchers are often qualitative in nature.

Slide 14-24
 Alternative Approaches to What
Makes Good Research
 Critical realism
An intermediary viewpoints. Critical realism is a combination of the
belief in an external reality (an objective truth) with the rejection of the
claim that this external reality can be objectively measured;
observations (especially observations on phenomena that we cannot
observe and measure directly, such as satisfaction, motivation, culture)
will always be subject to interpretation.
 Pragmatism
They feel that research on both objective and subjective meanings can
produce useful knowledge, depending on the research questions of the
study. The focus of pragmatism is on practical, applied research where
different viewpoints on research and the subject under study are
helpful in solving a (business) problem. Pragmatists stress the
relationship between theory and practice. For a pragmatist, theory is
derived
Slide 14-25 from practice and then applied back to practice to achieve

intelligent practice.
 Positivism

 Scientific research is the way to get to the

truth

 Rigor and Replicability, reliability, and

generalizability

 Key approach: experiment

Slide 2-26
 Constructionism

 The world as we know it is fundamentally

mental

 Aim to understand the rules people use to

make sense of the world

 Research methods are often qualitative in

nature

Slide 2-27
 Critical Realism

 There is an external reality but we cannot

always objectively measure this external
reality

 The critical realist is critical of our ability

to understand the world with certainty

Slide 2-28
 Pragmatism
 Do not take a particular position on what
makes good research

 Research on both objective and

subjective phenomena can produce
useful knowledge

 Relationship between theory and practice

 Purpose of theory is to inform practice

Slide 2-29