IGCSE BIOLOGY

TERM 2 - LESSON 1
Reproduction

reproduction
involves passing
genetic information
from parent to
offspring
Reproduction
i a l –
a t er h a t
t i c m e s t
e n e g e n A
G d i n D N
ta i ne fr o m ci d)
co n a d e i c a
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o x yr o f p r
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 Reproduction
Reproduction produces offspring that
resemble their parents, but they are not
identical to them.

Reproduction involves the fusion of

gametes.
Reproduction

Gametes are the

sex cells. In
animals, the male
sex cell is the
sperm, and the
female eggs or ova.
 Reproduction
Reproduction involves the fusion of
gametes in a process called
fertilisation
SPERM of males

EGG of female
 Reproduction
Fertilisation produces the first cell of the
body which is called zygote.

SPERM

ZYGOTE
EGG
Reproduction

Zygotes are formed

when the male
gamete fertilises
the female gamete.
 Reproduction
Zygote cell undergoes many divisions
forming the embryo.

SPERM

ZYGOTE EMBRYO
EGG
Reproduction

Following
fertilisation, the
zygote divides into
2, then 4, then 8,
and so on.
Reproduction

In animals, when
the zygote
becomes implanted
in the womb it is
known as the
embryo.
Reproduction

In animals, after
about eight weeks
of development,
the embryo
becomes known as
the foetus
 Human gametes (sex
cells)
Male sex cell = sperm (they are made in
testis)
The chromosomes (genetic
Head information) are tightly packed
together in the nucleus

The tail lashes from side to side

and helps the sperm swim
Tail forwards

A single ejaculate may be about 4cm3 of

fluid and may contain up to 500 million
sperms to compensate the lost sperms.
 Human female gametes (sex
cells)
Female sex cell = egg (ovum) – they are made in the
ovaries

Membrane

Nucleus containing
chromosomes

Cytoplasm

Jelly coat
The nucleus
The nucleus of the cell,
containing all of the
genetic material. This
material is inherited from
the parents.
The nucleus

The nucleus contains

chromosomes – in normal
human cells, there are 23
pairs of chromosomes.
Each chromosome is
made up of a very special
molecule called DNA.
The nucleus

The nucleus contains

chromosomes – in normal
human cells, there are 23
pairs of chromosomes.
Each chromosome is
made up of a very special
molecule called DNA.
DNA stands for
deoxyribonucleic acid, but at
this stage just stick with the
initials DNA!
 The nucleus
Here is an
individual
chromosome.
Inside, the
double helix of
DNA can be
clearly seen.
Chromosomes, genes and
DNA
chromosome
 Chromosomes, genes and
DNA

Individual sections of a chromosome are

called genes. Each gene ( a short section of
DNA) codes for a particular protein, which
may control particular characteristics, such
as eye colour. Each chromosome may
contain thousands of genes.
 DNA Structure

DNA consists of
of two strands, set be a
like a twisted l ete uld nd
mp ho - a
o s
a c nism NISM
ladder
wrapped into a
o rm ga G A
double helix. s f o r OR r k .
u l e a n LE w o
l ec ow WHO ould
o
m on - A h h
A s s
DN tions cell cell
tru c i ng th e
ins ction how
fun
Every time a cell divides,
all the DNA in the nucleus
must be copied exactly.
 Alleles
Let’s just
recap a
second!
Genes control
specific
characteristics,
such as eye
colour
Alleles
How many different
eye colours are
there?
Alleles
How many different
eye colours are
there?
 Alleles
There are several How many different
versions (each version eye colours are
has a slightly different
there?
DNA) of the same gene,
all coding for different
eye colours.
 Alleles
There are several How many different
versions (each version eye colours are
has a slightly different
there?
DNA) of the same gene,
all coding for different
eye colours.
These different forms of
the same gene are
called alleles.
(Genetic differences)
 Alleles
There are How many different
different forms of eye colours are
the same gene,
there?
all coding for
different eye
colours.
These different
forms of the
same gene are
called alleles.
So there are alleles for blue
eyes, brown eyes, etc.
 It’s
definition
time!
Variation
Differences between individuals
belonging to the same species.
Genetic differences (ALLELES)
Differences of the DNA of organisms
within the same species.
 Sperm
+ Egg

Contains half the Contains half the

chromosome chromosome
number of normal number of normal
body cells body cells
Eg . 23 in humans Eg. 23 in humans

Zygote

Contains the full

chromosome
number
Eg. 46 in humans
 Chromosomes
In human body cells there are 46
chromosomes, arranged into 23 pairs.
Chromosom
esIn human
body cells
there are 46
chromosome
s, arranged
into 23 pairs.

The human
diploid
number is
46.
The human
haploid
number is
23.
 Chromosomes
In human gametes (sex cells) there are 23
chromosomes, one from each pair.
 Chromosomes
Other species have different numbers of
chromosomes – there is no relationship
between the size of an organism and the
chromosome number.
 Chromosomes
Other species have different numbers of
chromosomes – there is no relationship
between the size of an organism and the
chromosome number.

r = =
be r
m be
n u u m
d
i 56 n
l o o d
i 92
p l
Di Di
p
 Chromosomes
Other species have different numbers of
chromosomes – there is no relationship
between the size of an organism and the
chromosome number.
Organism Diploid number of
chromosomes
Pigeon 80
Dog 78
Cat 38
Bean 22
Pea 14
Meerkat 36
Pig 38
Dolphin 44
 Sex chromosomes
One pair of chromosomes are the sex
chromosomes – they determine the gender of
an individual (male or female)

The male has an X

sex chromosome and
a Y sex chromosome
(shown here)
 Sex chromosomes
One pair of chromosomes are the sex
chromosomes – they determine the gender of
an individual (male or female)

The female has two X

sex chromosomes
 Sex chromosomes
One pair of chromosomes are the sex
chromosomes – they determine the gender of
an individual (male or female)

Male = XY

Female =
XX
 Inheritance of sex
Female Sex Male Sex
chromosomes chromosomes
=XX =XY

X X X Y
In gamete (sex cell)
formation, the sex
chromosomes separate
Inheritance of sex
chromosomes
sperm

egg
X Y
X
X
Inheritance of sex
chromosomes
sperm

egg
X Y
X XX XY
X XX XY
 Inheritance of sex
chromosomes
sperm

egg
X Y
BABY
GIRL X XX XY
X XX XY
BABY
BOY
 Inheritance of sex

sperm

egg
X Y
FERTILISATION is RANDOM
BABY
GIRL X XX
-There is an equal chance that
an X-sperm or a Y-sperm will
fertilise the egg.
XY
Therefore, there is an equal
chance of having either a baby

X XX XY
BABY girl or a baby boy.
BOY
 Inheritance of sex

sperm

egg
X Y
X XX XY
BABY REPRODUCTION means loads
GIRL of variation, because the
genetic material from both
parents is mixed together
when the sperm fertilises the

X XX XY
BABY egg
BOY
Why sexual reproduction
promotes variation
Why sexual reproduction
promotes variation
1. The gametes are produced by
meiosis, which ‘shuffles’ the genes.
Why sexual reproduction
promotes variation
1. The gametes are produced by
meiosis, which ‘shuffles’ the genes.
2. Gametes fuse randomly, with one of
each pair of alleles coming from
each parent.
Why sexual reproduction
promotes variation
1. The gametes are produced by
meiosis, which ‘shuffles’ the genes.
2. Gametes fuse randomly, with one of
each pair of alleles coming from
each parent.
3. The alleles in a pair may be
different and so produce different
characteristics.
 understand that
variation within a
species can be
genetic,
environmental, or a
combination of both
 Variation
Two possible
causes

Genetic Environment

As a result of the As a result of the

different genes conditions in
inherited which they
develop
Usually, variation is
due to a
combination of
genetic and
environmental
causes
 Chromosome mutations
Rather than changes in individual bases, whole
chromosomes may be inserted or lost, or bits may be
broken off. A relatively common chromosome
mutation can be found when the female ova may
contain two copies of chromosome 21.

When fertilised by a
normal sperm, the
offspring will have three
copies of chromosome 21.
This is called trisomy 21
and the resulting
condition is known as
Down’s syndrome.
understand that
resistance to antibiotics
can increase in bacterial
populations, and
appreciate how such an
increase can lead to
infections being difficult
to control
Resistance in bacteria
Scientists try to control
the spread of bacteria
using antibiotics .

Gene mutations can

result in bacteria
becoming resistant to the
use of antibiotics.

Resistant bacteria have an

advantage over non-
resistant bacteria and so
spread through the
population.

This is an example of natural selection in

action.
Evolution by Natural Selection
4 key points to remember
Evolution by Natural Selection
4 key points to remember

1. Individuals within a population show

variation (i.e. differences due to their
genes)
Evolution by Natural Selection
4 key points to remember

2. There is competition between individuals

for food and mates, etc., and also predation
and disease. This keeps the population sizes
constant in spite of production of many
offspring i.e. there is a ‘struggle for survival’
and many individuals die.
Evolution by Natural Selection
4 key points to remember

3. Individuals which are better adapted to

the environment are more likely to survive,
breed successfully and produce offspring.
This is termed ‘survival of the fittest’.
Evolution by Natural Selection
4 key points to remember

4. These ‘survivors’ will therefore pass on

their genes to their offspring, resulting in an
improved organism being evolved through
natural selection.
 Evolution in Action

Bacteria resistant to
penicillin
 Evolution in Action
Penicillin is an antibiotic –
it kills or slows down the
growth of bacteria.

Bacteria resistant to
penicillin
 Evolution in Action
Penicillin is an antibiotic –
it kills or slows down the
growth of bacteria.
Mutations have arisen
amongst certain strains of
bacteria that have
resulted in penicillin
resistance.

Bacteria resistant to
penicillin
 Evolution in Action
VARIATION

Bacteria mutated. Some

were resistant to the
antibiotic penicillin.
Others were not.

Bacteria resistant to
penicillin
 Evolution in Action
VARIATION

Bacteria mutated. Some

were resistant to the
antibiotic penicillin.
Others were not.

COMPETITION
The non-resistant bacteria
were more likely to be
killed by the penicillin.
Bacteria resistant to
penicillin
 Evolution in Action
BEST ADAPTED

The penicillin-resistant
bacteria survived and
reproduced more often.

Bacteria resistant to
penicillin
 Evolution in Action
BEST ADAPTED

The penicillin-resistant
bacteria survived and
reproduced more often.

PASS ON THEIR GENES

More bacteria are

becoming resistant to
penicillin. This is a major
health issue.
Bacteria resistant to
penicillin
 Natural selection and
Other examples: Evolution
Varieties Selection by Result
Only the fastest survive
Gazelles, fast and slow Lions
to produce offspring
Light forms in
Peppered moth, light Birds, selecting the
unpolluted areas, dark
and dark forms least camouflaged
in smoky cities
Rats – some killed by
Warfarin used by New variety of warfarin
warfarin, others
farmers –resistant rats.
resistant
Rabbits – resistant to
Virus introduced by New myxomatosis –
or killed by
farmers resistant population
myxomatosis
There is another type of selection made by human called artificial selection or
selective breeding.
 How to keep the fetus
healthy?
The substances that the fetus needs are brought to it in its
mother’s blood.

But the mother’s blood does not mix with the blood of the
fetus. The two blood systems come very close together, but
do not touch.

The substances that the fetus needs, diffuse from the

mother’s blood to the fetus’s blood. The substances that the
fetus needs to excrete diffuse in the opposite direction.
 Diet
Protein is needed to help the fetus to produce haemoglobin, new cells and
grow,

Mother needs extra protein to make extra haemoglobin – she needs more,
because her blood has to transport oxygen to give to her fetus.

Carbohydrate she needs to eat enough carbohydrate to make sure they

both have enough energy through respiration process, But she should not eat
too much, or the extra could be changed to fat and make her put on too much
weight,

Vitamins and minerals

Iron: needed to make haemoglobin

Calcium: is essential for helping the baby to grow strong bones, and to keep
the mother’s bones and teeth in good health.
 Effect of smoking
When a pregnant woman smokes, carbon monoxide and
nicotine diffuse from her blood into the fetus’s blood. It is as
though the fetus is smoking, too.

Carbon monoxide in the blood reduces the amount of oxygen that

haemoglobin can transport. This means that the fetus’s cells get less
oxygen, so they cannot respire as much and they cannot release as
much energy

Nicotine is an addictive drug. It can damage blood vessels

 Effect of Alcohol
When a pregnant woman drinks alcohol, carbon monoxide
diffuse from her blood into the fetus’s blood.

Carbon monoxide in the blood reduces the amount of oxygen that

hemoglobin can transport. This means that the fetus’s cells get less
oxygen, so they cannot respire as much and they cannot release as
much energy

Alcohol also affects the nervous system and causes liver

cirrhosis, besides it can make a delay in your reactions.
 Effect of drugs
Any drug that we do not need, can cause harm. These
drugs can be even more harmful to a fetus than to an
adult person. Most drugs that a pregnant woman takes
will go into her fetus’s blood. So the fetus is taking the
drug, too.
 provides oxygen and nutrients to
developing baby

protects the fetus from injury.

It allows the baby to move

The place where the baby grows and

develops.
The uterus contracts to push the baby
out of the body during labor