Hardware

Chapter 3
TABLE OF CONTENTS

3.1 3.2
Input and output
Computer Architecture Device

3.3 3.4
Data Storage Network Hardware
John neumann Architecture introduced the following features in our
computer

1. The concept of central processing unit

2. The ability of CPU to access the memory directly
3. Computer can now save data and programs at the same time
4. Stored program are instruction executed in sequential order

Arithmetic Logic Unit

This is a part of CPU that does all the arithmetic and logic operation that
is being instructed by a program. A Computer can have multiple ALU and
also specific function or instricution need multiple times use of ALU.

Control Unit
This is also a part of CPU that reads instruction and instruct other device
in the computer to execute the instruction using control bus. This CU
ensure synchronization of data flow and program instruction throughout
the computer.
 Address Data bus
bus

Memory Address
Program (MAR)

Program counter Memory Data

register (MDR)
Syste
m
Clock

Control
bus Current Instruction
Control unit register (CIR)

Arithmetic logic unit Accumulator

CPU
 Address Data bus
bus

______________________
_____

_________________ Memory Data

____ register (MDR)
Syste
m
Clock

Control
bus _____________________ Current Instruction
___ register (CIR)

_________________
Arithmetic logic unit
____

CPU
CPU
Register Abbreviatio Function/Purpose of register
n

Current Instruction Register CIR This register stores the current instruction
being decoded and executed

Accumulator ACC This register is used when carrying out ALU

calculation: it stores data temporary during
the calculation

Memory Address register MAR This register stores the address of the
memory location currently being read from
or written to

Memory data/buffer MDR This register stores data which has just
Register been read from memory or data which is
about to be written to memory

Program counter PC This register stores the address where the

next instruction to be read can found
How does a CPU works:

CU fetches memory from the RAM through MDR and the location of the
program file is kept at Program counter and the next instruction in the
program file is given to MAR. The CU fetches the instruction and gives
orders to different devices and fetch different data from RAM to MDR.

All the logical and arithmetic calculation is done using the ALU and the
accumulator helps to store temporary data which helps to do multiple
step in a specific function and calculation.
What are system bus?
Buses are referred as parallel transmission component and each wire
transfer only one 1 bit at a time.
CPU Memory Input/output

Ports

Control bus

Address bus

Data bus
Address bus
Carries the location of data or instruction from CPU to the RAM and
I/O deives, hence it is unidirectional

Data bus
Carries back and forth data between different I/O devices , Memory
units and CPU. this data can be address, instruction or numerical
value as well. Hence this bus is Bidirectional

Control Bus
Memory Address Contents
-read signal 1111 0000 0111 0011
-write signal
1111 0001 11011101

1111 0010 1001 0101

1111 0011 1001 0101

Important point to keep in mind

Cache is a special memory that is inside the CPU which

stores instructset and other frequently used
instruction. This is used to increase the performance by
decreasing the fetch time of memory as it is inside CPU
there is very less fetch time

Internal Clock is a clock at which CPU works as not the

entire core. Whereas System clock is the clock of a
Core.

Core is composed of ALU, CU, and registers.

Overclocking is changing the clock speed of a CPU from

BIOS that is greater than the recommended clock speed
Factor affecting Computer Performance
1. Increasing the bus width (data and address buses)
increases the performance and the speed of a
computer

2. Overclocking will potential increase the speed or

performance of the computer but this also
increasing the deterioration of hardware (by
overheating) and prone to crashed as well as
unreliable performance (mismatch of task and
synchronization)

3. Increasing the number core will increase the

processing speed but when core increasing
dependency among them also increases
END OF CT 1
SYLLABUS
Properties Primary Memory Secondary Memory

Size

Accessibility

Time

Type

Volatility

Example
Properties Primary Memory Secondary Memory

Size Small Large

Accessibility Directly addressable by CPU Not Directly addressable by CPU

Time Short term, temporary Long term, permanent

Type Internal External

Volatility Volatile Non- volatile

Example RAM, ROM, Cache HDD, SDD, Optical Disc

Random Access Memory
● Can be read, write and delete data by user
● Used to store data, files , part of application or part of operating
system that are currently in running
● It is volatile memory , meaning the data is when computer is
turned off
● Memory location can be accessed in RAM regardless of which
location was last accessed.
● Data from secondary storage are fetch to RAM before running
them
● When RAM is full Virtual memory is created by making some
part of HDD to used in like RAM
There are two types of RAM
1. Dynamic RAM (DRAM)
2. Static RAM (SRAM)
Properties DRAM SRAM

Composed of Capacitors and transistors Flip-Flops

Charge Needs to constantly refreshed Does not need to be refreshed

Transmission 60 nanoseconds 25 nanosecond

rate

Economically Expensive to make Less expensive to make

Power Consumes lesser energy Consumes more energy

Memory used RAM, Main Memory Cache

Storage space Higher Lower

Read Only Memory
● Can be only read data by user, the contents cannot be changed
or written by user
● They are non-volatile and permanent memory
● They often store BIOS, Bootstrap instruction
RAM ROM

Temporary permanent

Volatile non-volatile

Can be read and write at Data stored cannot be

altered

Use to store part of OS Use to store BIOS and other

that is currentoly being start up instruction
used

Can be increase in size to Cannot be increase in size

improve operational speed
Secondary (and off-line) storage falls into three categories according to
the
technology used:
» magnetic —-> HDD
» solid state—-> SSD
» optical —------> CD, DVD, blu-ray

Hard Disk Drives

Data is stored in a digital format on the magnetic surfaces of the disks
(or platters, as they are frequently called). The hard disk drive will have a
number of platters that can spin at about 7000 times a second. Read-
write heads consist of electromagnets that are used to read data from or
write data to the platters.
NOT in Syllabus of o'level
Normally each platter will
have two surfaces which can
be used to store data.

These read-write heads can

move very quickly – typically
they can move from the
centre of the disk to the edge
of the disk (and back again)
50 times a second.
Many applications require the read-write heads to constantly look
for the correct blocks of data; this means a large number of head
movements. The effects of latency then become very significant.
Latency is defined as the time it takes for a specific block of data
on a data track to rotate around to the read-write head.
 Data is stored on the surface in sectors and
tracks. A sector
on a given track will contain a fixed number of
bytes.

Due to spontaneous read, write and detection

operation there is a fragmentation of memory
space. Defragmentation software are used to
tidy up the memory space.
SOLID STATE DRIVE END OF HDD
They don’t rely on magnetic properties; the most common type of solid
state storage devices store data by controlling the movement of
electrons within NAND or NOR chips. The data is stored as 0s and 1s in
millions of tiny transistors (at each junction one transistor is called a
floating gate and the other is called a control gate) within the chip. This
effectively produces a nonvolatile rewritable memory.
A dielectric coating separates the two transistors, which allows the
floating gate transistor to retain its charge (which is why the memory is
non-volatile). The floating gate transistor has a value of 1 when it is
charged and a value of 0 when it isn’t. To program one of these
‘intersection cells’ a voltage is applied to the control gate and electrons
from the electron source are attracted to it. But due to the dielectric
coating, the electrons become trapped in the floating gate. Hence, we
have control over the bit value stored at each intersection.
Pro of SSD over HDD: Cons of SSD
» they are more reliable (no moving The main drawback of SSD is
parts to go wrong) still the longevity of the
» they are considerably lighter technology. Most solid state
(which makes them suitable for storage devices are
laptops) conservatively
» they don’t have to ‘get up to rated at only 20 GB of write
speed’ before they work properly operations per day over a
» they have a lower power three year period – this
consumption is known as SSD endurance
» they run much cooler than HDDs
(both these points again make them Hence they are not used in
very server and cloud storage
suitable for laptop computers) system.
» because of no moving parts, they
are very thin
» data access is considerably faster
Optical storage devices
● Both CDs and DVDs use a thin layer
of metal alloy or light-sensitive
organic dye to store the data.
● the outer part of the disk runs
faster than the inner part of the
disk.
● The data is stored in ‘pits’ and
‘lands’ on the spiral track. A red
laser is used to read and write the
data.
● CDs and DVDs can be designated
‘R’ (write once only) or ‘RW’ (can
be written to or read from many
times).
Writing data in a CD/DVD
● In CD- R , A high-power laser permanently
changes the dye layer, creating non-reflective
pits that cannot be erased. Once written, the
data cannot be changed
● In CD-RW, Uses a special material that can
change phase. A lower-power laser erases and
rewrites data by heating and cooling the
Reading Data from a CD/DVD
material.
● A low-power laser scans the disc.
● It detects differences in reflection between pits
and lands.
● The optical drive translates these reflections
into binary code (0s and 1s), which the
computer processes as data.
 Reading the First Layer (L0 - Semi-
Reflective Layer)

● The laser starts by focusing on the first (top)

layer.The first layer is semi-transparent,
allowing some laser light to pass through.
● The laser reads reflections from this layer, just
like a single-layer DVD.

Switching to the Second Layer (L1 - Fully

Reflective Layer)

● The laser adjusts its focal length to penetrate

Why Doesn't the First Layer Interfere with the first layer.
Reading the Second Layer? ● The first layer allows some light to pass, so the
laser can reach the second layer.
The first layer is designed to be semi-transparent, ● The second layer is fully reflective, allowing
reducing interference.The laser’s power is carefully the laser to read its data.
adjusted so it can penetrate without causing
errors.The drive’s error-correction system ensures
smooth reading.
● a blue laser is used to carry
out read and write
operations; the wavelength
of blue light is only 405
nanometres
● Blu-ray can store up to five
times more data than
normal DVD
● Blu-ray disks automatically
come with a secure
encryption system that
helps to prevent piracy and
copyright infringement
● the data transfer rate for a
DVD is 10 Mbps and for a
Blu-ray disc it is 36 Mbps
(this equates to 1.5 hours