Department of Mechanical Engineering

Design of Manufacturing Tools and Dies (MEng 5371)

Chapter Two
Design of Locators and Clamps

By: Mulisa Jiregna (MSc) 1

 General principles of degrees of freedom and constraints

• A body in space have twelve degrees of freedom i.e. it is capable of

moving into the space in the twelve different directions as shown in
Figure 2-1.

Figure 2-1. Degrees of

freedom/ Planes of movement
• The body can move in either of two opposed directions along three
mutually perpendicular axis (XX,YY & ZZ) as 9-12, 8-10, & 5-11and
may rotate in either of two opposed directions around each axes
clockwise and anti-clockwise (1-2, 3-4 & 6-7).
2
 Cont’d
• Each direction of movement is considered as one degree of' freedom.
Thus there are twelve degrees of freedom for any workpiece in space
(6-Rotational and 6-Translational).
Example: Determine the degrees of freedom arrested by V locator with a
stop pin of a cylindrical workpiece shown in Fig. below.

3
 Cont’d
Solution:
The V-locator with stop pin will arrest seven degrees of freedom
explained as follows:
The horizontal base plane is parallel to X and Z axis. It will restrict the
movement of the cylinder from rotating about X axis and downward
translatory movement along Y axis. Thus, degree of freedom 1, 2 and 3
will be restricted.
The vertical plane which is parallel to Y and Z axis will not allow the
cylinder to have rotary motion about Y axis and to have translatory
motion along, X axis leftward in the direction of freedom 6. Thus
degrees of freedom 4, 5 and 6 will be restricted.
The stop pin will not allow the cylinder to have translatory motion
along degree of freedom 7, along Z-axis.
Thus, seven degree of freedom will be arrested.

4
 Locating and Supporting Principles
• To ensure the successful operation of a work-holding device, the
workpiece must be accurately located to establish a definite relationship
between the cutting tool and some points or surfaces of the workpiece.
• This relationship is established by locators in the work-holding device
that position and restrict the workpiece to prevent movement from its
predetermined location.
• The two main aspects of location are:
i. To reduce all the degrees of freedom of the component to zero
ii. To avoid any redundant feature in the locating scheme.

5
 Cont’d
• The locating device should be designed so each successive workpiece,
when loaded and clamped, will occupy the same position in the work-
holder.
• The locating design selected for a given work-holder will depend on the
nature of the workpiece, requirements of the metal-removing operation to
be performed, and other restrictions on the work-holder.
• Part locators should never be installed as an afterthought, but must be
planned into the tool design.
• A tool designer must keep the following points in mind while designing
the tool:
1. Positioning the locators
2. Part tolerance
3. Fool proofing
4. Duplicate locators

6
 Cont’d
1. Positioning the Locators
• Locators should contact the work on a machined surface to permits
accurate placement of the part in the tool and ensures the
repeatability of the jig or fixture.
• Repeatability is the feature of the tool that allows different parts to be
machined consistently within their required tolerances.
• Locators should be spaced as far apart as possible to permits the use
of fewer locators and ensures complete contact over the locating
surface.

7
 Cont’d
2. Tolerance
• The tool tolerance should be between 20 and 50 percent of the part
tolerance. For example, if a hole in a part must be located within ± 0.10
inch, then the tolerance of the hole in the jig must be between ± 0.002
inch and ± 0.005 inch (Figure 2-2).

Figure 2-2. Tolerance relationship

8
 Cont’d
3. Fool-proofing
• The foolproof method ensures that components can only be loaded in
one correct way, using strategically placed pins, making it easy for
even unskilled workers to position them correctly.
• As shown in Figure 2-3 in order to ensure that an unskilled or a semi-
skilled worker can load the component correctly, four numbers of pins
are introduced such that there is only one unique way of loading.

Figure 2-3 Fool-proofing for an Unsymmetrical Component 9

 Cont’d
4. Duplicate Locators
• The use of duplicate locators should always be avoided.
• Figure 2-4 shows examples of duplicate locators.
• Locator duplication not only costs more but also could cause inaccuracies.

Figure 2-4 Duplicate locators

10
 Cont’d
Location Methods
A. 3-2-1 Method
• A workpiece may be positively located by means of six pins positioned
so that they collectively restrict the workpiece in nine directions.
• This is known as the 3-2-1 method of location and is used primarily for
controlling the degrees of freedom.
• This constraint is performed by providing six locating pins, three in a
base plane, two in a vertical plane and one in a plane perpendicular to the
first two, the nine degrees of freedom are controlled as shown in Fig. 2-5.

Figure 2-5 Six pins arrest nine directional movements

11
 Cont’d
Pin A, B, and C are supporting the prism from a plane parallel to the
plane that contains the X and Y axes. The prism can neither rotate
about the X and Y axes nor move downward in the Z direction.
Therefore, five directions (movements) have been restricted.
Two additional pins, D and E, whose faces are in a plane parallel to
the plane containing the X and Z axes, prevent rotation of the prism
about the Z axis. Therefore, three directions are restricted, and the
prism cannot rotate.
With the addition of pin F one direction is restricted.
• Thus, nine directional movements have been restricted by means of six
locating points, three in a base plane, two in a vertical plane, and one in a
plane perpendicular to the first two.
• Three directions still remain unrestricted. This is necessary for loading the
workpiece into the work-holder.
• The remaining three directions may be restricted with clamps, which also
serve to resist the forces generated by the material-removing operation.
• This three-two-one, or six-point, locating method is the most common
external locator for square or rectangular parts. 12
 Cont’d
B. Concentric and Radial Methods
• A workpiece that is located concentrically and radially is restricted from
moving in nine directions.
• Figure 2-6 shows a typical workpiece located concentrically. The base
and center pin restrict nine directional movements.

Figure 2-6 Base and center pin restrict nine directional movements
13
 Cont’d
• The base restricts any downward movement and rotation around the X
and Y axes.
• The center locating pin prevents any movement in either a traverse or
longitudinal direction along the X and Y axes.
• Located in this manner, the part is only free to move vertically or
radially around the Z axis.
• To prevent movement around the Z axis, a radial locator is positioned as
illustrated in Figure 2-7. In this position, both rotational directions (+
and -) around the Z axis are restricted.

Figure 2-7 Base, center pin,

and radial locator restrict 11
directional movements.
Clamping will restrict Z11 if
required

14
 Cont’d
Choosing a Locating Surfaces
• The tool designer must be able to accurately locate each part regardless of
how it is made.
• To made every possible shape and size, the tool designer must know the
various types of locators and how each should be used to get the best part
placement with the least number of locators.
i. Locating From a Flat Surface
• There are three primary methods of locating work from a flat surface:
solid supports, adjustable supports, and equalizing supports.
• These locators set the vertical position of the part, support the part, and
prevent distortion during the machining operation.
a) Solid supports are the easiest to use. They can be either machined into
the tool base or installed (Figure 2-8). This type of support is normally
used when a machined surface acts as a locating point.

15
 Cont’d

Figure 2-8 Solid supports

16
 Cont’d
b) Adjustable supports are used when the surface is rough or uneven,
such as in cast parts.
• There are many styles of adjustable supports. A few of the more common
are the threaded (Figure 2-9A), spring (Figure 2-9B), and push types
(Figure 2-9C).

Figure 2-9A Adjustable supports, threaded type

Figure 2-9C Adjustable supports, push type Figure 2-9B Adjustable supports, spring type
 Cont’d
c) Equalizing supports (Equalizing Jacks) are also a form of adjustable
support (Figure 2-10).
• They provide equal support through two connected contact points. As one
point is depressed, the other raises and maintains contact with the part.
• This feature is especially necessary on uneven cast surfaces.

Figure 2-10 Equalizing-type adjustable supports 18

 Cont’d
ii. Locating From an Internal Diameter
• Locating a part from a hole or pattern is the most effective way to
accurately position work.
• Nine of the twelve directions of movement are restricted by using a
single pin, and eleven directions of movement are restricted with two
pins.
• Several types of locators are used for locating work from holes. Figure
2-11 shows a few locators used for large holes.
• When large holes locate the work, fasten the internal locator with both
screws and dowels.
• Under normal conditions, two dowels and two screws are needed to hold
the locator.
• With more force, it is better to use larger dowels and screws rather than
to increase their number.

19
 Cont’d

Figure 2-11 Internal locators

20
 Cont’d
• There are many types of locating pins to fit different manufacturing
processes.
a. Pin Locators
• The most common form of locator is the pin type, shown in Figure 2-12.
• Pin locators are available in two basic styles, either plain or with a
shoulder.
• Both styles come in a wide range of diameters and are typically installed
by either press fitting the pin directly into the tool body or by slipping
the pin into a bushing.
• They are used primarily for positioning parts with minimal load-bearing
requirements and fit into corresponding holes on the workpiece.

Figure 2-12 Two common

types of locating pin: (a)
plain and (b) shoulder-type
(a) (b) 21
 Cont’d
b. Round Locating Pins
• Round locating pins are distinguished by their cylindrical shape, which is
straightforward yet effective for a wide variety of applications.
• They can be used for both internal and external workpiece location and
are typically manufactured to precise tolerances to ensure a snug fit
within the workpiece holes.

Figure 2-13 Round locating pins

22
 Cont’d
c. Bullet-Nose and Conical Locators
• The bullet-nose dowels, bullet-nose pins, and cone locator pins are
mainly for internal location and allow easier loading of workpieces over
the pins.
• Each of the locators is installed by press fitting into the tool body.
• Bullet-nose dowels are designed with a rounded, bullet-shaped tip for
easy insertion and alignment. These dowels are typically used with
bushings to guide the assembly of two parts with high precision.
• Bullet-nose dowels are commonly used in fixture setups where parts need
to be quickly and frequently aligned and disassembled, such as in
modular fixtures.
• Bullet-nose pins also feature a rounded tip but are generally used as
permanent or semi-permanent guides in assembly operations, serving as
both a locating and holding device.
• Cone locator pins have a conical shape that narrows towards the tip,
allowing for easier alignment and insertion compared to cylindrical pins.
Cone locator pins are used with mating bushings, as shown in Figure 2-
15. 23
 Cont’d

Figure 2-14 Bullet-Nose and Conical Locators

Figure 2-15. Cone locator pin

24
 Cont’d
d. Relieved
• Relieved locators are designed to minimize the area of contact between
the workpiece and locating pin. It is frequently seen in jig-and-fixture
design.
• This reduces the chances of the locator sticking or jamming in the part.
Figure 2-16 shows several examples of relieved locators.
• The most commonly used form of relieved locator is the diamond pin.
• The distinctive feature of diamond pin is the diamond-shaped tip, which
allows for precise control over the orientation of the part being
positioned.

Figure 2-16 Relieved locators 25

 Cont’d
• Diamond pins are used for radial location in conjunction with round
locating pins.
• It is easier to locate a part on one round pin and one diamond pin than
to locate it on two round pins.
• In use, the round pin locates the part and the diamond pin prevents the
movement around the pin (Figure 2-17).

Figure 2-17 Locating with one relieved locator

26
 Cont’d
• Figure 2-18 shows how two diamond pins could be used to locate a part.
• Two diamond pins should be used to locate a part when the part has
adequate locational tolerance.

Figure 2-18 Locating with two relieved locators

27
 Cont’d
• The split contact locator, shown in Figure 2-19, is a type of relieved
locator used for thick workpieces.
• Here, rather than using the complete thickness of the part for location,
the locator is relieved in the middle, and only the top and bottom areas
of the locator contact the workpiece.
• This design provides full location and makes the locator less likely to
bind in the workpiece.

Figure 2-19 Split contact relieved locator

28
 Cont’d
• The raised contact locator, shown in Figure 2-20, is an example of
relieving a locator for better function.
• Here the top and bottom contact areas of the locator have been removed.
• This design reduces the contact area and raises the point where the
locator and work-piece touch.
• Moving this contact point off the base plate, to the middle of the
workpiece, helps reduce the effects of dirt, chips, or burrs.

Figure 2-20 Raised contact relieved locator

29
 Cont’d
iii. Locating From an External Profile
• Locating work from an external profile, or outside edge, is the most
common method of locating work in the early stages of machining.
• The following are examples of the most common ways a part can be
located from its profile.
a. Nesting locators
• It position a part by enclosing it in a depression, or recess, of the same
shape as the part.
• It is the most accurate locating device for profile location.
• Since the nest must conform to the shape of the part, nests are very
expensive to design for complicated shapes.
• The most common type is the ring nest, which is normally used for
cylindrical profiles (Figure 2-21).
• The full nest is completely encloses shapes other than cylindrical (Figure
2-22).

30
 Cont’d
• The partial nest is a variation of the full nest and encloses only a part of
the workpiece (Figure 2-23).

Figure 2-22 Full nest

Figure 2-21 Ring nest

Figure 2-23 Partial nest

31
 Cont’d
b. Vee locators
• They are mainly used for round work. They can locate flat work with
rounded or angular ends and flat discs (Figure 2-24).
• One advantage vee locators have over other locators is their centralizing
feature.

Figure 2-24 Vee locators 32

 Cont’d
c. Fixed-stop locators
• They are used for parts that cannot be placed in either a nest or a vee
locator.
• They are either machined into the tool body (Figure 2-25), or installed
(Figure 2-26).

33
 Cont’d
d. Adjustable-stop locators
• These are movable and frequently used for roughly cast or similar parts
with surface irregularities.
• It can also be used to keep the cost of a tool to a minimum (Figure 2-27).
• Since these stops are adjustable, their position on the tool body does not
have to be as closely controlled.

Figure 2-27 Adjustable locators

34
 Clamping and Work holding principles
• The main purpose of a work-holder, or clamping device, is to securely
hold the position of the part against the locators throughout the
machining cycle.
• Clamping forces should be directed within the locating area, preferably
through heavy sections of the workpiece directly upon locating spots or
supports.
• Cutting forces should be taken by the fixed locators in a jig or fixture as
much as possible, but generally some components of the cutting forces
must be counteracted by clamping forces.
• To be effective and efficient, clamps must be planned into the tool design.
• The clamp used must meet the following conditions:
i. The clamp must be strong enough to hold the part and to resist
movement
ii. The clamp must not damage or deform the part.
iii. The clamp should be fast-acting and allow rapid loading and
unloading of parts. 35
 Cont’d
Basic Principles of Clamping
I. Positioning the Clamps
• Clamps should always contact the work at its most rigid point. This
prevents the clamping force from bending or damaging the part.
• The part must be supported if the work is clamped at a point where the
force could bend the part.
• Clamps are also positioned so they do not interfere with the operation of
the tool or machine. It is important that the clamps be placed so that the
operator can work easily yet safely.
II. Tool Forces
• Tool force are forces generated by the cutting action. They are caused by
resistance of the workpiece being cut or sheared by the tool.
• To clamp a part correctly, the tool designer must know how tool forces, or
cutting forces act in reference to the tool.
• The necessary clamping pressure is reduced a great deal when the bulk of
the tool forces are directed at a solid part of the tool body.
36
 Cont’d
III. Clamping Forces
• Clamping force is the force required to hold a part against the locators.
• Clamping prevents the part from shifting or being pulled from the jig or
fixture during the machining operation.
• The type and amount of clamping force needed to hold a part is usually
determined by the tool forces working on the part and how the part is
positioned in the tool.
• Clamping pressure, as a general rule, should only be enough to hold the
part against the locators. The locators should resist the bulk of the thrust.
• Clamps must never be expected to hold all of the tool thrust.

37
 Cont’d
Types of Clamps
• Various methods of clamping are common to both jigs and fixtures.
• The type of clamp the tool designer chooses is determined by the shape
and size of the part, the type of jig or fixture being used, and the work to
be done.
• The tool designer should choose the clamp that is the simplest, easiest to
use, and most efficient.
1. Strap Clamps are the simplest clamps used for jigs and fixtures
(Figure 2-28). Their basic operation is the same as that of a lever.
• Strap clamps can be grouped into three classes, each representing a
form of lever (Figure 2-29).
• Figure 2-29A shows the first clamp, which has the fulcrum between
the work and the effort. This is the principle of a first-class lever.
• The second clamp, shown in Figure 2-29B, places the work between
the fulcrum and the effort, as with a second-class lever.
• The third clamp, shown in Figure 2-29C, uses the principle of a
third-class lever by placing the effort between the work and the
38
fulcrum.
 Cont’d

Figure 2-28 Strap Clamp

Figure 2-29 Lever classes of Strap Clamps 39

 Cont’d
• Most strap clamps use the third-class lever arrangement.
When these strap clamps are used, the spacing of the three
elements is also important.
The distance between the fastener (effort) and the workpiece
should always be less than that between the fastener and the heel
pin (fulcrum).
• Thus, when a strap clamp is used, the force on the workpiece is always
proportional to the position of the fastener with respect to the
workpiece and the heel support.
• If the stud were positioned exactly in the center of the strap, the
pressure generated by the fastener would be distributed equally
between the workpiece and the heel support (Figure 2- 30).
This arrangement may be desired for some clamping operations,
such as clamping two parts side by side, as in Figure 2-31.

40
 Cont’d

Figure 2- 30 Positioning the fastener in Figure 2- 31 The fastener placed in

the center of the strap applies equal the center of the strap is often used
pressure at both ends of the clamp for clamping two parts side by side

41
 Cont’d
• The arrangement shown in Figure 2-32 is a better way to clamp a single
part.
The fastener is positioned so that one-third of the strap length is
between the fastener and the workpiece and two-thirds of the strap
is between the fastener and the heel support.
The clamping pressure on the workpiece with this setup is twice as
great as that on the heel support

Figure 2-32 42
 Cont’d
• Some more common types of Strap clamps are the hinge clamp, the
sliding clamp, and the latch clamp (Figure 2-33).

Figure 2-33 Types of strap clamp

43
 Cont’d
• The fulcrum is positioned so that the clamp bar is parallel to the base of
the tool at all times.
Because of the slight differences in part thickness, this is not
always possible.
To make up for these differences, spherical washers or nuts are
used.
Spherical washers and nuts provide a positive base for clamping
elements, and reduce unnecessary stresses to the threaded members
(Figure 2-34).

Figure 2-34 Spherical nuts and washers 44

 Cont’d
• Strap clamps can be operated by either manual devices or power-driven
devices.
• Manual devices include hex nuts, hand knobs, and cams (Figure 2-35).
Power devices include hydraulic systems and pneumatic systems.

cam

Figure 2-35 Mechanical holding devices

45
 Cont’d
2. Screw Clamps are a type of mechanical clamp that uses a screw thread
to apply the holding force.
• They offer the tool designer almost unlimited application potential,
lower costs, and, in many cases, less complex designs.
• The only disadvantage in using screw clamps are their relatively slow
operating speeds.
• The two types of screw clamps generally used for jig and fixture work
are classified as direct-pressure and indirect-pressure clamps.
• Direct-pressure clamps use the pressure of the screw thread to hold
the workpiece.
 Typical examples are hook and swing clamps and quick-acting
hand knobs (Figure 2-36).
• Indirect-pressure clamps use the screw thread in combination with a
secondary device to transmit the holding force of the thread.
 The arrangement in Figure 2-37 shows a typical application of an
indirect-pressure screw clamp.
 One additional benefit of using indirect-pressure screw clamps is
that the holding force can be magnified by simply increasing the
leverage of the holding member. 46
 Cont’d

Figure 2-37 Indirect-pressure clamp

Figure 2-36 Direct-pressure screw clamps 47

 Cont’d
3. Cam-action Clamps, when properly selected and used, provide
a fast, efficient, and simple way to hold work (Figure 2-38).
• Because of their construction and basic operating principles, the
use of cam-action clamps is limited in some types of tools.
• Cam clamps, which apply pressure directly to the work, are not
used when a strong vibration is present. This might cause the clamp
to loosen, creating a dangerous condition.
• The three principle types of cam-action clamps used for work-
holders are the flat eccentric, flat spiral, and cylindrical (Figure 2-
38).
a. Flat eccentric cams are the easiest to make and can operate in
either direction from their center position.
• The basic eccentric cam locks when the cam reaches its high
center position.
• It operate on ahigh center principle and must be positioned
exactly at the high center to hold properly.

48
 Cont’d

Figure 2-38 Cam clamps

49
 Cont’d
b. Flat spiral cams are the most common style of cam clamp used for
jigs and fixtures.
• Commercial cam clamps use the spiral design rather than the
eccentric design because of its superior holding properties and
wider locking range.
c. Cylindrical cams are also used in many jig and fixture applications.
• They actuate the clamp by a lobe or through a groove cut into the
surface of the cylinder.
• The quick-acting cam clamp is one commercial variation that uses
the cylindrical cam principle to combine fast action with positive
holding.

Figure 2-39 Quick-acting cam clamp

50
 Cont’d
4. Wedge-action Clamps use the basic principle of the inclined plane to
hold work in a manner similar to a cam.
• The two principal types of wedge clamps are flat and conical.
a. Flat wedges, or flat cams, hold the part by using a binding action
between the clamp and a solid portion of the tool body.
• Wedges having a slight angle, from 1 to 4 degrees, normally hold
the work without additional attachments. This type of wedge is
considered to be self-holding (Figure 2-40).
• Large-angle, or self-releasing, wedges are used where more
movement must be made (Figure 2-41). Since they will not hold
by themselves, another device such as a cam or screw must be
used to hold them in place.
b. Conical wedges, or mandrels, are used for holding work through a
hole (Figure 2- 42).
• Mandrels are available in solid form and expansion form.
• Solid mandrels are limited in use to one size of hole. Expansion
mandrels are made to fit a range of sizes.
51
 Cont’d

Figure 2-40 Self-holding wedge clamp

Figure 2-41 Self-releasing wedge clamp

52
 Cont’d

Figure 2-41 Conical wedges

53
 Cont’d
5. Toggle-Action Clamps are commercially avail-able and work with
four general clamping motions: hold-down, push-pull, squeeze, and
straight-pull.
• The main advantages of using toggle clamps are their fast clamping
and releasing actions, their ability to move completely clear of the
workpiece, and their high ratio of holding force to actuation force.

Figure 2.42 Toggle clamp 54

 Cont’d
• Toggle clamps operate on a system of levers and three pivot points.
• When the clamp is locked, the pivots are in line, as in Figure 2-43A.
• When retracted, the pivots and levers are positioned, as in Figure 2-
43B.

Figure 2-43 Toggle action

55
 Cont’d
7. Power Clamping are an alternative to manually operated clamping
devices.
• They are normally operate under hydraulic power or pneumatic
power, or with an air-to-hydraulic booster.
• The advantages of power clamps are better control of clamping
pressures, less wear on moving parts of the clamp, and faster
operating cycles.
• The main disadvantage is cost, but this is easily offset by increased
production speeds and higher efficiency.
• Typical applications of power clamps are shown in Figure 2-44.

Figure 2-44 Power clamps 56

 Cont’d
8. Chucks are some of the most popular work-holders used for jig and
fixture work.
• These commercially made components allow a single work-holder to
service an infinite number of parts by simply changing or modifying
the holding and locating surfaces of the tool.

Figure 2-45 Special chuck jaws Figure 2-46 Blank chuck jaws 57
THE END!

58