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Lesson 2 Ethical Theories

The document discusses the importance of ethics in public administration, focusing on how ethical decisions are made and justified by officials. It explores various ethical theories, including consequentialism, deontology, and virtue ethics, while also addressing the complexities of moral judgment and the influence of individual and organizational ethics. Additionally, it highlights the need for fostering ethical judgment within organizations through codes, training, and culture.

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10 views

Lesson 2 Ethical Theories

The document discusses the importance of ethics in public administration, focusing on how ethical decisions are made and justified by officials. It explores various ethical theories, including consequentialism, deontology, and virtue ethics, while also addressing the complexities of moral judgment and the influence of individual and organizational ethics. Additionally, it highlights the need for fostering ethical judgment within organizations through codes, training, and culture.

Uploaded by

hw9rrqgx5y
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© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Administrative ethics

What is ethics?
Ethical decisions

• What are the decisions in, the public administration, that include
ethics?

• How do officials make these decisions?

• i.e.
• levels of taxation
• public health policies
• planning application of an individual’s home.
Justifications for ethical decisions

• Are decisions made by a legitimate authority?


• Do justifications show the efficient use of taxpayers’
money?
• Are decisions taken in the public interest? Or in the
interests of an individual or small group?
• Are decisions taken according to the principle of
fairness?
• Are decisions taken after appropriate consultations?
Justifications for ethical decisions

• What concept of ethics do individuals hold?


• Is the same concept held by all types of individuals working in the
public services?.
• There are members of the medical profession, the legal profession, engineers,
architects, social workers, teachers, accountants and general managers.
• Do they all share the same ethics as individuals?
• Does it really matter if they hold different ethical values as long as
they share the same organizational ethos?
Ethical judgement
• What is an ethical judgment?

• There are studies in psychology and philosophy - Kohlberg (1976)

• Moral judgment – is a “psychological construct” - a process by which


people decide if one action is morally right and another is morally
wrong. (Rest, Thoma and Edwards 1997)
The Six Stages of Moral Judgment
Lawrence Kohlberg 1981
• Pre-conventional Level
1. Obedience and punishment orientation (How can I avoid
punishment?)
• 2. Self-interest orientation (What's in it for me?) (Paying for a benefit)
• Conventional Level
3. Interpersonal accord and conformity (Social norms)
4. Authority and social-order (Law and order morality)
• Post-conventional Level
5. Social contract orientation
6. Universal ethical principles
Ethical judgement

• This model has been criticised –i.e. the “ethics of care” and not good
for some non-Western societies.
• Kohlberg’s schema has been refined and revisited.
• The Defining Issues Test
• The Managerial Moral Judgement Test.
• These are tests based on simulations in particular situations.
• Individuals make different kinds of decisions depending upon the
roles that we play.
Moral behaviour (Rest 1994)

• 1. Moral sensitivity – how our actions affect others.

• 2. Moral reasoning or judgement – the ability to make critical


decisions on particular cases through a rational deductive process.

• 3. Moral motivation – moral values above competing non-moral


values.

• 4. Moral character – having certain personality traits.


Ethical judgement

• Important for organizations:


• Can we foster ethical judgement?
• ethical codes, ethics training, ethical culture?
Ethical theorizing

• The definition of ethics and morality is contested:

• Morality is the effort to guide one’s conduct by reason – the best reasons for
doing – while giving equal weight to the interests of each individual who will
be affected by what one does. (Rachels and Rachels 2007: 15).

• Broadly speaking, we include within ‘ethics’ matters relating to the norms of


right and wrong action, good and bad dispositions or ‘character’ traits and the
nature of the good life (Banks and Gallagher 2009: 16).
Ethical theorizing
• Is ethics a scientific discipline (empiricism)?
• Is ethics related to the context of individuals?
• Does ethics come from an external source (code or book)?
• Are we forced to act by an external force (fear of punishment, or
desire for rewards)?
• Does it come from human nature as a result of living with others in a
society?
• Do we act morally by something inside of us (conscience)?,
• Are there individuals or groups that have moral wisdom and we trust
them?
• Subjectivism
• It is for individuals to decide what is ethically right or wrong.
• There is no objective right and wrong.
• Subjectivism seem no good for public service ethics.
• Relativism
• It is right for each society or social group to decide what is ethically
right or wrong
• To impose our ethics on another society might be deemed ethical
imperialism.
• Relativism can be accepted, all societies have some concept of
justice, or obligations or equity …………..
Consequentialist theories

• An action is ethical if there are more good consequences than bad.


• Utilitarianism.
• “the greatest happiness of the greatest number of people”.

• Jeremy Bentham (1748–1832) and John Stuart Mill (1806–73).


Consequentialist theories

• Utilitarianism is to be found in the cost–benefit analysis -


consequences and benefits of a particular policy.
• For example in planning a new airport, a cost–benefit analysis is
made:
• noise pollution, road congestion, threats to life and wildlife, threats to the
environment, threats to the quality of life ….
• Measurement is important for the utilitarian approach.

• One problem - What is happiness?- Also “the ends justify the means”
• Another problem is the difficulty in calculating all the consequences.
Deontological theories

• The right action is independent of the consequences.

• to keep a promise, repay a debt, respect a contract ….

• German philosopher Immanuel Kant (1724–1804)

• Categorical imperative
Deontological theories

• It is imperative because it gives instructions on how to act; ‘help


others in distress’, ‘treat people fairly’ or ‘pay people equally’.

• Treating people as we would like to be treated ourselves – with


respect and dignity.
Virtue Ethics

• Aristotle - virtue is an excellence (arête)

• Virtues make a person specifically human.

• Purpose
Virtue Ethics

• Character-based theories for the ethics of public administration - the


person and not the action.

• The reason why individuals perform good acts is because they are
good people.

• The natural end for man is to achieve eudemonia.


Virtue Ethics

• Virtues are not innate and must be cultivated.

• A person can only achieve eudemonia inside the polis.


The individual achieves the good life within an association.
• The virtues that might be relevant to public officials:
• Benevolence, courage, rationality, fair-mindedness, prudence, respect for law,
honesty, civility, self-discipline, trustworthiness.
• ethical awareness, self-motivation, personal resilience, fearlessness,
perseverance, political sensitivity, leadership skills and interpersonal skills.

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