ADMINISTRATIVE AND BUSINESS COMMUNICATION

(MGMT 1063)
 Chapter One: Communication an Overview
Meaning of Communication
The word Communication is derived from a Latin word “cummunicare” which means “to share”.
Therefore, the word communication means sharing of ideas, messages and words expressed
through a language, which is easily comprehensible to the listener.
Communication starts with a sender, who has a message to send to the receiver.
Communication is the transfer of information from a sender to a receiver with the information
being understood by the receiver.
Communication is a learned skill.
1. “Communication is the means by which people are linked together in an organization to
achieve a common purpose.” Chestar I. Bernard
2. “Communication is the broad field of human interchange of facts and opinions and not the
technologies of telephone, radio and the like.”Charles E. Redfield
3. “Communication is the act or action of transmitting information.” Leslie W. Rue
4. “Communication is a process involving the transmission and accurate replication of ideas
reinforced by feedback purporting to stimulate actions to accomplish organizational goals.” Scott
5. “Communication is the transmission and reception of ideas, feelings and attitudes both
verbally and non-verbally eliciting a response. It is a dynamic concept underlying all kinds of
living system.” Sigbond
Business communication is a specialized field and branch of general communication.
 General communication is concerned with many roles at large.
On the other hand business communication is concerned with business activities like internal
business activities: maintaining and improving the morale of employees, giving order to
workers, prescribing methods and procedures, announcing policies and organizational changes,
and etc…
As well as external business activities: selling and buying goods and services, reporting the
government and shareholders on the financial condition of the business operations and etc.
Significance of Communication
The importance of communication in any managerial process can hardly be over-emphasized.
•The importance of a communication may be summarized as follows:-

1. Establish and disseminate goals of an enterprise.

2. Develop plans for their achievement.
3. Organize human and other resources in the most effective and efficient way.
4. Select, develop and apprise member of the organization.
5. Lead, direct, motivate and create a climate in which people want to contribute.
6. Control performances.
 Communication in Management
To be effective, a manager needs information necessary to carryout managerial functions and activities.
 Clearly, there is no universally applicable communication system; rather, it must be tailored to the manger’s
needs.
Communication is the lifeblood of an organization. If we could somehow remove communication flows from
an organization, we would not have an organization.
It is needed for:
 Exchanging information
 Exchanging options Executing decisions

 Sending and fulfilling orders

 Conducting sales
 Making plans and proposals

 Reaching agreement
 Chapter Two: The Communication Process
Elements of Communication Process
 Communication is an exchange, not just a give, as all parties must participate to complete the
information exchange.
Thought: First, information exists in the mind of the sender. This can be a concept, idea,
information, or feelings.
Encoding: Next, a message is sent to a receiver in words or other symbols.
Decoding: Lastly, the receiver translates the words or symbols into a concept or information
that he or she can understand. During the transmitting of the message, two processes will be
received by the receiver: content and context. Content is the actual words or symbols of the
message which is known as language - the spoken and written words combined into phrases that
make grammatical and semantic sense.
Context is the way the message is delivered and is known as Paralanguage - it includes the tone
of voice, the look in the sender's eye's, body language, hand gestures, and state of emotions
(anger, fear, uncertainty, confidence, etc.) that can be detected.
•To be an effective communicator and to get your point across without misunderstanding and
confusion, your goal should be to lessen the frequency of these problems at each stage of this
process with clear, concise, accurate, well-planned communications. We follow the process
through below:

i) Source
• Communication begins with the sender, who has a thought or an idea which is then encoded
in a way that can be understood by both sender and the receiver.
ii) Message
•The message is the information that you want to communicate.
iii) Encoding
• This is the process of transferring the information you want to communicate into a form that
can be sent and correctly decoded at the other end.
•A key part of this is knowing your audience: Failure to understand who you are
communicating with will result in delivering messages that are misunderstood.
iv) Channel
• The information is transmitted over a channel that links the sender with the receiver.
Messages are conveyed through channels, with verbal including face-to-face meetings,
telephone and videoconferencing; and written including letters, emails, memos and reports.
Different channels have different strengths and weaknesses.
v) Decoding
• Just as successful encoding is a skill, so is successful decoding (involving, for example,
taking the time to read a message carefully, or listen actively to it.)
Vi) Receiver
•The receiver converts the message into thoughts (decoded). Accurate communication can
occur only when both the sender and the receiver attach the same or at least similar meanings
to the symbols that compose the message.
vii) Feedback
• Your audience will provide you with feedback, verbal and nonverbal reactions to your
communicated message.
• Pay close attention to this feedback as it is the only thing that allows you to be confident
that your audience has understood your message.
viii) Context
•The situation in which your message is delivered is the context. This may include the
surrounding environment or broader culture (i.e. corporate culture, international cultures,
etc.).
 Barriers of Communication

Anything that prevents understanding of the message is a barrier to communication.

Barriers can exist in the sender, in the transmission of the message, in the receiver, or in
the feedback. Many physical and psychological barriers exist:
Culture, background, and bias: We allow our past experiences to change the meaning of
the message. Our culture, background, and bias can be good as they allow us use our past
experiences to understand something new, it is when they change the meaning of the message
then they interfere with the communication process.
Noise - Equipment or environmental noise impede clear communication
Ourselves: Focusing on ourselves, rather than the other person can lead to confusion and
conflict. The "Me Generation" is out when it comes to effective communication. Some of the
factors that cause this are defensiveness (we feel someone is attacking us), superiority (we
feel we know more that the other), and ego (we feel we are the center of the activity).
Perception: our preconceived attitudes affect our ability to listen.
Message: Distractions happen when we focus on the facts rather than the idea.
Environmental: Bright lights, an attractive person, unusual sights, or any other stimulus
provides a potential distraction.
Smothering: Too often we believe that certain information has no value to others or they are
already aware of the facts.
Stress: People do not see things the same way when under stress. What we see and believe at a
given moment is influenced by our psychological frames of references - our beliefs, values,
knowledge, experiences, and goals.
Guidelines to Overcome Barriers to Communication

•The following list outlines points to consider in relation to overcoming communication

barriers.
- Feedback - enables communication to become a two way process with both the sender and
the receiver trying to achieve mutual understanding
- Consider the words used - long complicated sentences and unfamiliar words confuse people.
Communication should be clear, complete, concise, concrete, correct and courteous.
- Use repetition - repeating messages several time using different examples can help others to
understand the messages being sent
- Use empathy - seeing a situation from another person's viewpoint and trying to understand
others opinions concerns and attitudes makes better communicators
- Timing - poor timing can result in messages not being received effectively
- Being positive rather than negative helps make communication more effective - what is
wanted not what isn't wanted
- Select the best location - talk somewhere that will encourage open communication not a
noisy shop floor or a busy office
- Listening reduces communication
- Check written communication for spelling errors and ensure the sentences are clear,
concise and not ambiguous.
Interpersonal Communications and Team Work
Interpersonal Communication
• Interpersonal communication is also referred to as dyadic communication, or communication
between two individuals. This type of communication can occur in both a one-on-one and a
group setting.
The most common functions of interpersonal communication are listening, talking and conflict
resolution. Types of interpersonal communication vary from verbal to non-verbal and from
situation to situation.
Interpersonal communication involves face-to-face communication in a way that accomplishes
the purpose and is appropriate.

Small Group Communication

• Small group communication is an interaction process that occurs among three or more
people interacting in an attempt to achieve commonly recognized goals either face-to-face or
through mediated forms.
This is sometimes included in the interpersonal level- the most obvious difference is the
number of persons involved in the process.
The small group may be a family of three talking at supper, or a meeting of an organization
with just a few members.
 Chapter Three: Principles of Communication
The 7 Cs provide a checklist for making sure that your meetings, emails, conference calls,
reports, and presentations are well constructed and clear – so your audience gets your message.
To compose effective messages you need to apply certain specific communication principles
The commonly used principles are:

1. Correctness
2. Conciseness
3. Clarity
4. Completeness
5. Concreteness
6. Consideration
7. Courtesy
1. Correctness: when your communication is correct, it fits your audience. And correct
communication is also error-free communication.
Communication is correct when it bears real information and uses formally appropriate titles of
persons, words etc. to express matters.
• To be correct in communication the following principles should be borne in mind.
 Use the correct level of language

1. There are three levels of language –formal, informal, and sub formal.
2. The formal level of language is used for scholarly dissertation, master and doctoral thesis,
government agreements, legal documents, etc.
• The informal language refers to the language of business used for letters, memos, reports
etc.
 Include only facts words and figures
 Maintain acceptable writing mechanics. This refers to:

- Spelling errors
- Punctuation marks
- Capitalization
- Grammatical accuracy
- Sentences and paragraph structures

- Format for memos, letters, reports etc

• Choose non-discriminatory expressions

•Example: - Equal treatment of sexes

• -Use humankind rather than mankind

• -Use chairperson rather than chairman

 2. Conciseness: Business executives are dead-busy. They don’t have time to go through
unnecessarily lengthy messages. The writer is also a loser if he writes wordy messages
because it involves more time and money to type and read.

Conciseness makes the message more understandable and comprehensible.

To make the message more concise, the following guide lines are important:
­ Eliminate wordy Expressions eliminate words like "for instance," "you see," "definitely,"
"kind of," "literally," "basically," or "I mean."

­ Include only relevant material.

­ Avoided unnecessary Repetition

3. Clarity: Clarity is getting your message understood by others. The receiver must interpret
your message with the same meaning in your (sender’s) mind.
Make sure that it's easy for your reader to understand your meaning.
- Use the right level of language

- Proper punctuation makes the writing clear

- Check Accuracy of fact, figure & Word

- Choose short, familiar & conversational words

- Achieve appropriate readability by using formal & informal language

- Include examples, illustrations & visual aids.

4. Completeness: The message should be complete to bring desirable results. It should

include everything the reader needs for the reaction you desire.
• The following guide lines are important to make the message complete enough.
- Does your message include a "call to action", so that your audience clearly knows what
you want them to do?
- Have you included all relevant information – contact names, dates, times, locations, and
so on?
- Does your message provide all necessary information, answer all questions asked, and
give something extra when desirable.

5. Concreteness: The business writing should be specific, definite, unambiguous and vivid
rather than vague and general. The following guidelines lead to concreteness.

­ Use specific facts and figures

­ Put action in your verb

­ Choose vivid image building words.

­ Comparison & figurative language

­ Use more adjectives and adverbs

6. Consideration refers to you attitude, sympathy, the human touch and understanding of
human nature. Consideration means the message with the receiver in mind.
Show reader benefit & interest; your message should show interest in and concern for the
reader’s needs or viewpoints.
Focus on YOU instead of I & WE: People are usually concerned about themselves than
about others.
• Examples:
- ‘We pay 8% interest’ is not preferred rather say ‘you earn 8% interest’
- Say ‘Congratulations on your successes rather than ‘I want to send my congratulation on
your success.
Emphasize positive& pleasant: For most people negative words like no, impossible, I
cannot etc. have unpleasant emotions.
• Examples:
- Say-As soon as your signature card reaches us, we will gladly open an account for you.
- Don’t say-It is impossible to open an account for you today.
Apply integrity & ethics: integrity refers to high moral standards as honesty, sincerity,
decent character etc. Ethics on the other hand is concerned with what is right human
conduct.
7. Courtesy: To make your message courtesy, be sincere, tactful, thoughtful and
appreciative, Omit expressions that hurt, irritate, or insult. Grant apologies graciously.
Use expressions that show respect and answer your mail promptly.
Courtesy is more important and advantageous in business writing than it is in face to face
communication or conversation. Courteous message strengthen present relations and make
new friends. It is a goodwill building.
 Unit Four: Types of Communication in Organization

Communication is divided into external and internal communication.

External communications are those communications which are occurring outside the
organization like communication with other companies, with government, general public
etc.
 Internal communications are those which are inside the organization. Internal
communications are further divided into two parts, formal or official and informal.
1. Internal and external Communication
• Internal communication is the exchange of messages between employees inside the
organization
(Angell, 2004). When you talk, send an e-mail message, or write a memo to co-workers,
supervisors, or managers about customer needs, supplier delivery schedules, or project
progress, you are communicating internally.
 Formal and Informal Communication
1.Formal Communication

•Formal communication channels are established within the organization’s chain of

command in order to accomplish task objectives.

•In a formal communication, transmission of messages is made as per the procedures

specifically set up for the purpose in the organization. Usually orders and instructions flow
from the superiors to the subordinates and reports, suggestions, and recommendations flow
from the subordinates to the superiors.
 Horizontal

Diagonal
Upward
Downward

Figure 4.1 Information flow in an Organization

1. Downward Communication
•Downward communication flows from people at higher levels to those at lower levels in the
organizational hierarchy (Koontz and Weihrich). The major purposes of downward
communication are to advise, inform, direct, instruct, and evaluate employees and, to
provide information for organization members about organizational goals and policies.
•The kinds of media used for downward communication include instructions, speeches,
meetings, the telephone, loudspeakers, memorandum, letters, handbooks, pamphlets, policy
statements, procedures, and electronic news displays.

•The advantage of downward communication is that when messages are clear and
comprehensive, employees better understand(Angell):
- Their role in the company,
- What resources are available, and
- What is expected from them professionally?
Disadvantages
• Angell described that one disadvantage of downward messages is noise. Downward noise
includes message filtering and distortion.
• employees may experience message overload when they receive too much information at
one time.
• Downward flow of information through the different levels of the organization is time
consuming.
• problems in downward communication also exist when managers do not provide
employees with the information they need to carry out their tasks effectively.
2. Upward Communication

•Upward communication flows from individuals at lower levels of the organizational

structure to those at higher levels (Invancevich, Konopaske, and Matteson, 2005). In such
situations, the communicator is at lower level in the organization than the receiver
. The main function of upward communication is to supply information to the upper levels
about what is happening at the lower levels.

Organizational communication researcher Gary Kreps also identifies the following

functions of upward communication:

It provides managers with feedback about current organizational issues and problems, and
information about day-to-day operations

It is management’s primary source of feedback for determining the effectiveness of its
downward communication.

It relieves employees’ tensions by allowing lower-level organization members to share

relevant information with their superiors.
•Modern organizations use many kinds of oral and written crosswise communication patterns to
supplement the vertical (downward and upward) flow of information.

a) Horizontal Communication
•Horizontal communication is the flow of information among people on the same or similar
organizational levels (Koontz and Weihrich).
•Horizontal communication is necessary in an organization for the following purposes:

 To coordinate and integrate diverse organizational functions.

 To prepare plan.
 To solve problems: such as how to reduce waste, etc.
 To share information: such as an easier way to perform a task.
 To resolve conflict: such as disagreement between co-workers.
 To build relationship: group member’s interactions, to build understanding and friendship.
Advantages

- It increases worker productivity through coordination of interpersonal working

relationships.
- It boosts morale.
- It allows employees to interact and learn from each other.
- It encourages teamwork and collaboration. The most notable disadvantage of horizontal
communication is professional rivalry, which is competition between members of different
departments.
b) Diagonal Communication Diagonal communication is the flow of information among
persons at different levels who have no direct reporting relationships with one another (Koontz
and Weihrich).
Diagonal communication is important in situations where members cannot communicate
effectively through other channels.
2. Informal Communication

•An informal communication network operates independently from official channels and
involves messages that flow in all directions and through all levels of authority (Angell).
•Informal communication channels exist to serve the interests of those people who make them
up, regardless of their positions in the organization.
•Cook and Hunsaker (2001) identify the grapevine, social gatherings, and management by
wandering and informal one-to-one discussions as a typical informal channel.
 The Grapevine Grapevine is informal channel of communication within an organization.
Grapevines develop within organizations when employees share common hobbies, hometowns,
lunch breaks, family ties, and social relationships (Rue and Byars, 2005). The information that
travels through a grapevine typically takes the form of gossip (beliefs about other people) and
rumors (efforts to predict future events).
• The grapevine satisfies social needs; helps clarify orders and decisions, and serve as a way of
getting out information that can’t be expressed adequately through formal channels.

In utilizing the grapevine, honesty is the best policy.

Davis has identified four possible types of grapevine chains.
1. Single strand chain, person A tells something to person B, who tells it to person C, and so on.
2. The gossip chain, one person seeks out and tells everyone the information he or she has
obtained.
3. Theprobability chain, individuals are indifferent about whom they offer information to.
They tell people at random, and those people in turn tell others at random.
4. The cluster chain, person A conveys the information to a few selected individuals, some of
whom then inform a few selected others. J

K E E
D
G E
C B I
K
H
D B G H
K

K
C
D D
F B
B Gossip
C F
K

A A A

Single Strand
Probability Cluster
Advantages of the company grapevine include the speed at which messages can travel and the
opportunity for management to receive important employee feedback. The grapevine can also
explain on confirm confusing or complex formal messages (Angell, 2004).

•The downside of the grapevine is that inaccurate rumors can spread that undermine morale
or project performance.

Social gathering

•Social gathering is another informal communication. Social gathering for informal

information exchange can be created at office parties, company picnic, and luncheons.

Management by wandering around

Managers can simply walk around their organizations and informally chat with all levels of
employee to learn about their concerns, ideas, and problems.
External Communication
External communication is the exchange of messages between the organization and the external environment
(Angell).
The external communication links the organization with the outside world.
•Organizations are involved in communicating externally to present products and services, to develop a positive
image, to attract employees, and to gain attention.
• The channels used for external communication include annual reports, newsletters, brochures, advertisements,
press releases, conferences, and sponsorship of special community events.
•According to Angell, external communication between the organization and the environment is a process
involving input, throughput, and output.
The flow of external message is illustrated below.
 Input is all the information the organization receives from environment, such as customer perceptions and
expectations, product or service problems, economic trends, and new state or federal regulations.
 Throughput involves the organization’s analysis and evaluation of the input it receives and the
transformation of that input into outputs.
 Output refers to messages the organization transmits to the environment in response to received input.
 Government

Media
Output

The
Community
Organization
Input
Stockholders

Customers

Figure 4.3. External Communication Process

The most obvious advantage of external communication is feedback from the environment,
which can be vital to the survival of any organization.
It can also help the organization plan, make decisions, avoid problems, and satisfy customer
needs.
•According to Invancevich et.al., the typical external communication program includes four
distinct programs:
- Public relations involve the communication of a positive image, exemplary organization
citizenship, and promotion of an identity as a contributor or society and the immediate
community.
- Advertising involves illustrating products or services in a positive manner. This form of
communication is designed to attract customers.
- Promoting the culture and opportunities available to prospective employees. This
communication is designed to attract employee talent to sustain and grow the organization.
• Customer surveys are used to gather feedback about the experience of external
constituents with the organization. This information is used to make modifications or
changes in service, product, or relationships.
•Effective internal communication integrates and facilitates the managerial functions at all
levels; and effective external communication relates and integrates an organization
successfully to its external environment.
Types of communication can be further categorized into verbal communication and
nonverbal communication.
1. Non-Verbal Communication
• Verbal communication refers to the communication which occurs with the help of words.
•Non-verbal communication refers to the type of communication that does not use words.
• Non-verbal communication is closely associated with the power of observation. The receiver
of the communication should be in a position to see, hear and even feel the communicator.
The receiver of the communication should be in a position to clearly see the face, the
gesture, the tone, the dress, the appearance and also hear the voice of the communicator.
Importance of Non-verbal Communication
 For conveying ideas related to geography, maps, charts, graphs etc. At a glance, the receiver
can understand the matter, because non-verbal methods can present a large amount of data
in a compact form.
 For traffic signs and signals, non-verbal communication is absolutely essential because
there must be instant response from the drivers or pedestrians.
 Every human being normally responds quickly to colors, pictures or sounds than to any
language.
 The only method to convey illiterate people through non-verbal symbols.
 1.Body Language
• Body language means the changes that occur in the body position and movements that
shows what the person is feeling or thinking
•Body language can be divided into conscious and unconscious:
A. Unconscious movements are of biological origin, acquired habit and cultural customs are
as follows:
1) Biological: Certain body shapes, skin color and features cause persons to have some kinds
of gestures, expressions and postures.
2) Habitual: Some movements and expressions are learnt as habit in the process of adapting
oneself to the environment.
3) Cultural: Customs like not sitting cross-legged before elders, not looking straight in the
eye of elder or senior are culture specific. Customs of receiving guests, introduction, and
social conduct also include some gestures.
B. Conscious movements, postures and voice modulations are deliberately used. Actors are
specially trained for this, skilled communicators, especially good presenters also make conscious
use of body language.
The following are the non-verbal communication of body languages.
I. Appearance: Appearance makes the first impression, lack of neatness or cleanliness,
carelessness in grooming; clumsy clothes make a negative impression. Poor health is easily
reflected in the appearance.
Facial Expressions It is said that the face is the index of the mind
III Eye Contact An eye movement is a key part of facial behavior, directing other’s attention or
showing surprise or happiness and other emotional displays.
IV Smile A smile is a very potent form of facial expression. It opens the door to communication.
V Posture (Body Position) Posture refers to the way one stands, sits and walks. The position of
hands and legs and other parts of the body reveals not only an individual’s state of mind
VI Gestures: The gestures like playing with the ring, twisting a key chain or clasping one’s
hand tightly may indicate the state of mind of the speaker affecting both the encoding and
decoding of his/her message in communication.
VII Clothing and Accessories: Clothing is very important aspect of body language. It
requires judgment to make a subtle impression by what you wear.
VIII VIII Energy: Energy and enthusiasm as an aspect of body language is hard to describe,
but most people have experienced the impact of a person with a high level of energy.
IX Time (Chronemics)
•Time given to listen or to speak to people creates a sense of self-esteem in them. It is
equated with care and concern.
X Space Distance (Proxemics)
•Each communicator has a personal zone and territory built or constructed around him or herself which he or
she does not allow to invade during communication unless the relationship between the speaker and the
listener is intimate. Edward T. Hall has described human relationship in terms of four kinds of distance as:
1. Intimate–Physical contact to 18 inches.
2. Personal–18 inches to 4 feet.
3. Social–4 feet to 12 feet.
4. Public –12 feet to range of eyesight and hearing.
1. Paragraph Language
• The non-verbal aspects of the spoken words are known as paragraph language. It includes the qualities of
the voice, the way we use our voice, as well as the sounds we make without uttering of the words.
A. Voice
•Voice has characteristics like
 Tone: is the quality of the voice.
 Volume: is the loudness or softness of the voice
B. Speed: Speed is factor of speech. Rapid speech indicates excitement. We increase speed of speaking to tell an
interesting story and reduce speed to explain a difficult idea.
C. Pronunciation means the accepted standard of the way in which a word is said. Correct and clear pronunciation
is important and indicates that the speaker is careful and has consideration for the audience.
D. Accent. Accent is the way a person pronounces the sound of the language.
E. Stress: Stress on a particular word in a sentence can change the meaning and implication.
F. Silence: Silence can be very effective way of communication. Silence is a difficult method of communication to
use as it takes a good deal of self-control and self-confidence to be able to hold one’s tongue.
Non-verbal Aspect of Written Communication
 Color
 Pictures
 Diagrams
 Graphs and Charts
 Maps
 Flow Charts
 Chapter Five: Public Relation

•PR is the management function that establishes and maintains mutually beneficial
relation between an organization and the public’s on whom its success or failure depends.
• Public relation activities are: press release, advertising and lobbying.
• The main objective of public relation is to create a positive attitude on the part of the
organization and to deliver information about the organization and its activities.

• Public relation’s News defines PR as: The management function which evaluates public
attitudes identifies the policies and procedures of an organization or an individual and
plans and executives a program of action to earn public understanding and acceptance.
 Common Elements in the Definitions of PR
1. Conducts a plan and sustained program as part of an organization management
2. Deals with the relationships between its stake-holder(concerned body)
3. Monitors awareness, opinions, attitudes and behaviors inside and outside the organizations.
4. Identifies policies, procedures and actions that conflict with the public interest organizational survival.
5. Analyzes the impact of policies, procedures and actions on stake-holder publics.
Organizations of PR Offices
•We can categorize organizations in to three main divisions: -

a) Industrial,
b) Governmental, and
c) NGO’s

a
a) Industrial PR, the office is concerned at least in two main objectives.
 To maintain good relationship between the consumer, producer & stockholder.

 To promote the company’s products and services in highly competitive

condition.

b)Government PR office is expected to perform two major objectives.

 To give regular information on policies, plans & achievements of the department.

 To inform & educate the public legislation, regulation, etc …

c) NGOs PR department plays a great role in linking it with the public.

 PR and related activities
1.Publicity
Publicity is information provided by an outside source that is used by the media, the
information has newsworthy (value).
It is uncontrollable methods of placing messages in the media because the source does not
pay the media for placement.
Media decisions makes may or may not use the information based on their judgment of its
news value and interest to their audiences.
To generate publicity, the source must know what information will attract media attention.
Identify a newsworthy angle and lead and write and package the information appropriately for
each media.
As a PR professional in an organization you should write something relevant to media or
 2. Advertising
It is information placed in the media by an identified sponsor that pays for the time and place.
It is a controlled method of placing messages in the media.
It is a tool of PR that organizations use in order to secure more public understanding and
acceptance.

The comparison & contrast of publicity & advertisement

•Publicity is more powerful than advertisement because:

 Publicity is done for free coverage.

 The coverage may take more time than advertisement.
 People tend to listen and accept news than advertisement.
 Advertisements are most of the time ignored or given lesser attention.
But the problem with publicity is:

Very difficult to get it easily.

It may not easily come some other time.
3. Lobbying
It is a specialized part of PR that builds and maintains relations with government primarily
for the purpose of influencing legislations and regulations.
Takes the form of open advocacy and discussions on matters of public policy.
Often criticized as some view it as an attempt to manipulate government for selfish
Lobbyists should know the legislative process at every level of government.
 The Publics of Public Relations
•In public relations and communication science, publics are groups of individuals, and the
public (the general public) is the totality of such groupings. The name "public" originates
with the Latin "populous" or "poplicus", and in general denotes some mass population ("the
people") in association with some matter of common interest.

•the situational theory of publics by James E. Grunig (Grunig 1983), which talks of nonpublic
(who have no problem), latent publics (who have a problem), aware publics (who recognize
that they have a problem), and active publics (who do something about their problem).
• In public relations and communication theory, a public is distinct from a stakeholder or a
market.
• Publics are a group of people with similar interests who have a common opinion on a
controversial subject.
•Publics can be categorized as Primary & Secondary---------------based on their interest.

 Primary groups- closely related by blood ties, proximity, work place. Their
characteristics: share common outlook on many controversial issues, they are also called
homogenous groups.
 Secondary groups- dissimilar background groups, diverse interest, not so committed to
groups interests as primary publics, they are also called heterogonous groups, school
classes, social organization, etc.
• N.B: There should be limitless number to be public depending on the nature of the group.
E.g. Small number of publics: - dormitories, offices etc.
Another grouping of publics is based on their attachment: - internal & external publics.

 Internal publics: employees(workers), managers, labor unions, stock holders

 External publics: consumers, governments, dealers (distributers), suppliers, the
community, mass media.
Public opinion
Opinion: the expression on an attitude in a particular subject. It is the manifestation of
attitude. To be an opinion-------attitude-------opinion-------Action
Public opinion-

 It is an expression of a belief held in common by members of a group or public a

controversial issue of general importance.
 It is a consensus deriving from many individual opinions.
 The Public Relations Process
•An effective PR is the result of a five processes
a) Information gathering ( problem definition)
b) Planning and programming
c) Monitoring and evaluation
d) Taking action and communicating
e) Evaluating the program
1. Information gathering ( problem definition)
 It is like making a research on a given problem.
 It provides the foundations for all the other steps in the process by determining what is
happening now.
 Organizations gather information from their publics through informal and formal research
2. Planning and programming
•This is a step for making the basic strategic decisions about what will be done and in what
order in response to on in anticipation of a problem or opportunity. It answers the questions
like: “Based on what we have learned about the situation, what should we change? Do? and
why?
Key elements in PR planning and programming
•Setting objectives
•Defining target publics
•Developing massage/content
•Determining the tools/channels to deliver the massage
•Resources and time scale
3. Monitoring and evaluation
- PR program plans should outline how the overall program can be monitored and evaluated.
4. Taking action and communicating
•It involves implementing the program of action and communication designed to achieve the
specific objectives for each of the public’s to accomplish the program goal.
5. Evaluating the program
•This is the final step in the process that involves assessing the preparation, implementation
and results of the program.
Seven C’s of PR communication
 Credibility: receiver must have confidence in the sender and high regard source’s
competence on the subject.
 Context: effective communication requires a supportive social environment one largely sets
by the news media.
 Content: the message must have meaning for receivers, be compatible with their value
system and have relevance to receiver’s situation.
 Clarity: the message must be put in simple terms; words must mean the same to receivers as
to the senders.
 Continuity and consistency: communication requires repetition in approaches but
consistency in ideas.
 Channels: channels of communication that receivers use and respect must be used.
Capacity of the audience: communication must take in to account the capability of the
audience.
 Media Relations
•They are strategies/ways of getting information.
•These strategies are: press releases, press-conferences, interviews, media tours and the like.
1. Press release
 It is information supplied to the reporter.
 A press release, news release, media release, press statement or video release is a written or
recorded communication directed at members of the news media for the purpose of
announcing something ostensibly newsworthy.
 Typically, they are mailed, faxed, or e-mailed to the assigned editors at newspapers,
magazines, radio stations, television stations, and/or television networks. A standard press
release contains the following common structural elements:
Headline, Dateline , Introduction, Body, Boilerplate -generally a short "about" section, Close,
and Media contact information .
2. Press-conference It is an event in which an organization invites journalists for a face to face
question and answer session with the representatives of the organization.
 It should be arranged when an organization has an important issue to announce or explain
that may not be well communicated in a press release.
3. Press tours/media facility visit
 PR practitioners may need to arrange media facility visit to their organization or its branches
out of town by their own initiative or up on the request of the media.
 Decide the right time and day for organizing the visit.
 Send invitations; address them to the head of the media organization not to the reporter, and
clearly tell them:
What the issue is about
 When the issue takes place
 Where the event is going to happen
 Who prepares and participates on it
NB. If you send the invitation letter directly to the reporter, media agencies will be offended
and they may cancel him out.
Responsibilities of the PR officers
 The major functions of the PR officer include:
 monitoring media coverage
 briefing and advising management
 managing media relationships
 informing the public directly
 sharing information across the organization
 formulating communication strategies and campaigns, and
 researching and assessing public opinion.
 Chapter Seven: Written Communication
Seven Cs of Written Communication Clarity, Completeness, Conciseness, Consideration, Courtesy,
Correctness and Concreteness.
Business letter writing
•A business letter is a formal communication tool. Letters are used for formal communications when the topic
demands more attention than is possible with a phone call or an e-mail message. Basic Parts of Letters: reading
assignment

Forms of Letters

1. Indented form: This is the oldest style and is now outdated. In this form, the inside address is in intended
style, and every paragraph being 3 to 5 space away from the left margin.

2. Full blocked form: This is the most modern style.

3. Modified blocked form: This style is a modification of the full block form.
4. Semi-indented/Semi-blocked form: This is like the block style except that the paragraphs of the letter are
indented.
 5. Hanging indention form
6. NOMA form
Read the above forms of letters on your module
•Memorandums A memorandum is short piece of writing used by an officer of an
organization to communicate within the organization.
•The literal meaning of the word memorandum is a note to assist the memory. A
memorandum is used for internal communication between executives and subordinates. It is
never sent outside the organization.
Purpose of Writing Memorandums
•Memorandum (memos) may be used for any official communication.
•Usually, memos are used:-
a. For conveying schedule message.
b. For submitting periodical reports.
c. For communicating changes in organization.
d. For issuing instruction to the staff.
e. For conforming a decision made at phone.
f. For asking certain special information.
g. For writing suggestions.
Advantages of Memorandums
Inexpensive:
Convenient
Future reference
Quick
Fixing accountability
The Memorandum Format
•The memo format is different from that of a letter. Since a memo moves from one
department to another or from one employee to another, it is essential to write the name of
the person sending the memo and the name of the recipient and the designation or
department of both the persons. It must also have reference numbers.
The words ‘From’ and ‘To’ are invariably used in memo
Report Writing
•A report is a form of systematic presentation of information relating to an event, progress of
action or some business activity. It is a written statement of results, events, qualities,
conditions, progress or interpretation of records. A report is a basic management tool used in
decision-making.
Oral and Written Reports
• An oral report is simple and easy to present. It may consist in the communication of an
impression or an observation. But written report is always preferred because:
I. An oral report can be denied at any time. But written report is a permanent record.
II.An oral report tends to be vague. In written report, the writer tries to be accurate and
precise.
III.A written report can be referred to again and again.
IV.Distortion during transmission reduces.
 1.Types of Business Reports
On the basis of legal formalities
1. Informal reports: It is written in the form of a letter from one person to another. Informal
reports typically do not follow any prescribed form or procedure. They do not have any
uniform structure.
2. Formal reports: A formal report is one which is prepared in a prescribed form and is
presented according to an established procedure to a prescribed authority.
On the basis of the frequency of issue, a report can be periodic or special.
1. Periodic or routine reports: They are prepared and presented at regular prescribed
intervals in the usual routine of business. They may be submitted daily
2. Special reports: They are related to a single occasion or situation. Reports on the
desirability of opening a new branch or on the unrest among staff in a particular branch
are special reports. Special reports deal with non- recurrent problems.
 On the basis of functions a report can be informative. If a report merely presents facts
pertinent to an issue or a situation, it is informative. On the other hand, if it analyses the
facts, draw conclusions and make recommendations, it may be described as analytical or
interpretative or investigative.
On the basis of the nature of the subject dealt with, we can have
 a Problem-determining report
Fact-finding report
Performance report
Technical report etc.
On the basis of the number of persons interested with the drafting of reports, we can have:
Reports by individuals
Reports by committees or sub-committees.
 Guiding Principles of Writing a Report: reading assignment
Characteristics a Good Report
a. Precise and brief
b. Accuracy
c. Clarity
d. Relevant
e. Reader-oriented
Purpose of Business Report
A. It presents factual information to management.
B. It records fact and results of investigation or survey for future references.
C. It provides useful information to shareholders, customers, creditors and general public.
D. It makes recommendation for future use.
Structure of a Report Long reports are usually written in the letter text combination form.
A complete report in this form is divided into three major parts:-
A. Introductory Parts
 Letter of transmittal or letter of presentation
 Cover page
 Title page
 Preface
 Acknowledgement
 Table of contents
 List of illustrations
 Abstract/summary or synopsis
B. Body of the Report
 Introduction
 Research methodology
 Analysis/ Discussion or description
 Finding
 Conclusions
 Recommendations
C. End Matters
 List of references
 Glossary
 Bibliography
 Appendices
 Index
END!!!