Syllabus

2.Chapter
Review of Transducers and Sensors

Definition and classification of transducers.

Definition and classification of sensors.
Performance terminologies of a transducer,
working principle and application of piezoelectric sensors
proximity sensors , Hall effect sensors, Light sensors and
infra-red sensors

1
 Sensors and Transducers
The term sensor is used for an element which produces a signal relating to the quantity being measured.
In an electrical resistance temperature element, the quantity being measured is temperature and the sensor transforms an input of temperature into a change in resistance.

The term transducer is often used in place of the term sensor.

Transducers are defined as elements that when subject to some physical change experience a related change. Thus sensors are transducers.

2
 TYPES OF SENSORS AND TRANSDUCERS
–DISPLACEMENT
–TEMPERATURE
–PRESSURE

–Sensors and –STRESS

transducers are the key –POSITION AND PROXIMITY

elements used for the –VELOCITY

measurement of the –MOTION
physical quantities. –FORCE
–LIQUID FLOW
–LIQUID LEVEL
–LIGHT SENSORS
• SENSORS
– Element in a measurement system that acquires a physical parameter
and changes into a signal
• TRANSDUCER
Converts energy from one form to another.
Temperature, strain --------- electrical energy
Example- accelerometer gives output voltage proportional to the
mechanical motion of the object
ACTIVE TRANSDUCER
PASSIVE TRANSDUCER
 PERFORMANCE TERMINOLOGY

•1. RANGE •10. READABILITY

•2. SPAN •11. RESOLUTION
•3. ERROR •12. DEAD ZONE
•4. ACCURACY •13. DEAD TIME
•5. PRECISION •14. BACKLASH
•6. SENSITIVITY •15. BIAS
•7. HYSTERISIS •16. TOLERANCE
•8. REPEATABILITY •17. DRIFT
•9. REPRODUCIBILITY •18. UNCERTAINITY
1. RANGE – Difference between minimum and maximum values of a quantity
Ex. 10kn to 100kn

2. SPAN – It is the difference between maximum and minimum values of the quantity to be
measured
Ex. 100-10 = 90kn

3. ERROR – Deviation of the true value from the measured value

Error = measured value – true value

4. ACCURACY – It represents how closely the measured value agrees with the true value

5. PRECISION – It refers to repeatability or consistency of measurements when the measure

ments are carried out under identical conditions at short interval of time

6. SENSITIVITY – It is the ratio of the magnitude of the output signal to the magnitude of th
e input signal
Sensitivity = output/input

7. HYSTERISIS – Difference in the output for a given input when this value is approached fro
m the opposite direction
8. REPEATABILITY – Closeness of agreement among number of consecutive measurements
of the output for the same value of input under the same operating conditions

9. REPRODICIBILITY - Closeness of agreement among number of consecutive

measurements of the output for the same value of input under the same operating
conditions over a period of time

10. READABILITY – Closeness with which the scale of an analogue instrument can be read

11. RESOLUTION – Smallest change in a measured variable to which an instrument will

respond or minimum value of the input signal required to cause an appreciable change
or an increment in the output

12. DEAD ZONE – Time taken by an instrument to begin its response

13. BACKLASH –It is the lost motion or free play of the mechanical elements such as gears,
linkages etc

14. BIAS – The constant error that exists over the full range of measurement of an
instrument
 Sensors and Transducers
Performance Terminology

Range and span: The range of a transducer defines the limits between which
input can vary. The span is the maximum value of the input minus the minimum
value.

Thus, for example, a load cell for the measurement of forces might have a range of
0 to 50 kN and a span of 50 kN.

Error: Error is the difference between the result of measurement and the true
value of the quantity being measured.

Thus if a measurement system gives a temperature reading of 25°C when actual

temperature is 24°C, then error is + 1 °C. If actual temperature had been 26°C
then error Value or measured A sensor might give a resistance change of 10.2 .0
when the true change should have been 10.5.0. The error is -0.3.0.
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 Sensors and Transducers
Performance Terminology

Hysteresis error : Transducers can give different outputs from the same value
of quantity being measured according to whether that value has been reached
by a continuously increasing change or a continuously decreasing change. This
effect is called hysteresis. Figure shows such an output with the hysteresis
error as the maximum difference in output for increasing and decreasing
values.

14
 Sensors and Transducers
Performance Terminology

Non-linearity error:

15
 Sensors and Transducers
Performance Terminology

Repeatability/Reproducibility

16
 Sensors and Transducers
.

17
 Sensors and Transducers
To illustrate the above, consider the following data which indicates how an
instrument reading changed with time, being obtained from a thermometer
plunged into a liquid at time t = O. The 95% response time is required.
Figure shows the graph of how the temperature indicated by the
thermometer varies with time. The steady – state value is 55oc and since
95% response time is about 228 seconds.

18
Selection of sensors

19
 Sensors and Transducers
In selecting a displacement, position or proximity sensor, consideration has to be given to:
1.The size of the displacement; are we talking of fractions of a millimeter, many millimeters or perhaps meters? For a proximity sensor; how close should the object be before it is
detected?
2.Whether the displacement is linear or angular; linear displacement sensors might be used to monitor the thickness or other dimensions of sheet materials, the separation of rollers, the
position or presence of a part, the size of a part, etc. while angular displacement methods might be used to monitor the angular displacement of shafts.
3.The resolution required.
4.The accuracy required.
5.What material the measured object is made of; some sensors will only work with ferromagnetic materials, some with only metals, some with only insulators.
6.The cost.

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• Nature of measurement required.
• Variable to be measured,
• range of values,
• the accuracy required,
• speed of measurement, reliability ,
• envirnmental conditions under which
measurement is done.
• The nature of output required from the sensor

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04/14/25
 Sensors and Transducers
Displacement sensors are concerned with the measurement of the amount by which some object has been moved.

Position sensors are concerned with the determination of the position of some object with reference to some reference point.

Proximity sensors are a form of position sensor and are used to determine when an object has moved to within some particular critical distance of the

sensor. They are essentially devices which give on-off outputs.

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Displacement and position sensors

25
The following are the different electric phenomena
employed in the transduction elements of transducers:

1) Capacitive
2) Resistive
3) Inductive
4) Piezo-electric
5) Electromagnetic
6) Photo-emissive
7) Photo-resistive
8) Potentiometric
9) Thermo-electric
10) Frequency generating
Displacement and position sensors can be grouped into two basic types:
Contact sensors in which the measured object comes into mechanical
contact with the sensor.
Non-contacting where there is no physical contact between the measured
object and the sensor.

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 RESISTIVE POSITION TRANSDUCERS
A displacement transducer uses a resistance element with a
sliding contact or wiper linked to an object being monitored or
measured. Thus, the resistance between slider and one end of
the resistive element depends on the position of the object.

(a) (b)

Fig.6-1: (a) Construction of a resistive position transducer and

(b) typical method
31
 Continued………..

(a) (b)

Consider Fig 1 (b), if the circuit is unloaded, the output voltage

V0 is a certain fraction of VT, depending on the position of the
wiper:
V0 R2

VT R1  R2
or,
33
Potentiometer

34
Potentiometer

35
Strain gauges

36
 strain gauge
• If a strip of conductive metal is stretched
changes resulting in an increase of electrical
resistance end-to-end.
• If these stresses are kept within the elastic
limit of the metal strip the strip can be used as
a measuring element for physical force, the
amount of applied force inferred from
measuring its resistance.
• Such a device is called a strain gauge.

37
 Applications
• The strain gauge has been in use for many
years and is the fundamental sensing element
for many types of sensors, including pressure
sensors, load cells, torque sensors, position
sensors, etc.

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39
40
• The strain gauge is connected into a
Wheatstone Bridge circuit with a combination
of four active gauges (full bridge), two gauges
(half bridge), or, less commonly, a single
gauge (quarter bridge).

42
 Strain Gauge Transducers)
A tensile stress tens to elongate the wire and thereby
increase its length and decrease its cross-sectional
area. The combined effect is an increase in resistance
as seen from
L
R
A (1)
Where
  = the specific resistance of the conductor material
in ohm
 L = the length of the conductor in meters
 A = the area of the conductor in square meters
Strain Gauge Transducers(cont’d)

Resistive strain gauges; wire construction

 R / R
K
G

45
 Strain Gauge Transducers
 As a consequence of strain two physical qualities are of particular interest:
(1) the change in gauge resistance and (2) the change in length. The
relationship between these two variables expressed as a ratio is called the
gauge factor.
 K. Expressed mathematically as
R / R
K  (2)
L / L

Where
 K = the gauge factor
 R = the initial resistance in ohms (without strain)

 = the Rchange in initial resistance in ohms
 L = the initial length in meters (without strain)
L
 = the change in initial length in meters
 R / R
K
G
For strain gauge applications, a' high
degree of sensitivity is very desirable.

A high gauge factor means a relatively

large resistance change for a given
strain.
Such a change is more easily measured
than a small resistance change.
Relatively small changes in strain can be
sensed. 47
Mechatronics

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Mechatronics

49
Capacitance Transducers

50
 Capacitance Transducers—I

• capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor is:

 r 0 A
C
d
– A: overlapping area of plates (m2)
Air escape
– d: distance between the two plates of the capacitorhole
(m)
0 air
– : permittivity of air or free space 8.85pF/m
r :
– dielectric constant
Parallel plate Fuel tank
capacitor
•The following variations can be utilized to make capacitance-based
sensors.
–Change distance between the parallel electrodes.
–Change the overlapping area of the parallel electrodes.
–Change the dielectric constant.
 Capacitance

• Capacitance: the ratio between Q C

C=
charge and potential of a body V V

• Measured in coulombs/volt. This unit

is called the farad [F].
• Capacitance is only defined for two
conducting bodies, across which the
potential difference is connected.
Position and displacement sensing
 Position sensor
(Push pull sensor) –used to sense few
millers to 100 of millimers.
Non Linearity and hysteresis are
about + or – 0.01%

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Mechatronics

55
 Mechatronics

Non-linearity relationship between

the change in capacitance and the
displacement can be overcome by
using push-pill displacement
sensor.
Such a sensor is used for
monitoring displacements form few
millimeters to few hundreds of
millimeters.
Non linearity and hysteresis are
about +or- 0.01% of full range.

Push-pull sensor & Capacitive proximity sensor

56
 Capacitive proximity sensor
• 0- One form of capacitive
proximity sensor
consists of a single
plate probe with the
other plate being
formed by the object
which has to bemetallic
and earthed.

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DIFFERENTIAL TRANSFORMERS

58
1. Linear Variable Differential
Transformer
2. Rotary Variable Differential
Transformer

59
1. Linear Variable Differential
Transformer

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 LVDT
Linear Variable Differential Transformer
• Transformer: AC Input / AC Output

• Differential: Natural Null Point in Middle

• Variable: Movable Core, Fixed Coil

• Linear: Measures Linear Position

 L V D Ts
LVDT linear position sensors are readily
available that can measure movements as
small as a few millionths of a cm up to
several cms, but some are capable of
measuring positions up to ± 40 cms.
 How Does An LVDT Work?
This figure illustrates what happens when the LVDT's
core is in different axial positions.

The LVDT's primary winding, P, is energized by an AC

source of constant amplitude. The magnetic flux thus
developed is coupled by the core to the adjacent
secondary windings, S1 and S2. I

f the core is located midway between S1 and S2, equal

flux is coupled to each secondary so the voltages, E1 and
E2, induced in each winding are equal.

At this midway core position, referred to as the null

point, the differential voltage output, (E1 - E2), is zero.
Mechatronics

65
This diagram also shows how the magnitude of
the differential output voltage, Eout, varies with
core position.
 Positional Sensors: LVDT
Linear Variable
Differential
Transformer

67
68
Rotary Variable Differential Transformer

69
• A rotary variable differential
transformer (RVDT) is a type of electrical
transformer used for measuring
angular displacement.

• (RVDT) is an electromechanical
transducer that provides a variable
alternating current (AC) output voltage
that is linearly proportional to the
angular displacement of its input shaft.
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RVDT

71
The core is cordioid shape of magnetic material and
rotation causes more of which is pass into one
secondary than the other.
Range of operation is ± 40° and the linearity error is
±0.5%
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The span is given in angles and can be up to ±30
to ±40. Beyond that the output is nonlinear.
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 Response of an RVDT

This diagram also shows how the magnitude of the

differential output voltage, Eout, varies with core position.
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Optical encoders

75
Mechatronics

76
• An encoder is a device that provides a digital
output as a result of a linear or angular
displacement.
• Incremental encoder that detects change in
rotation from some datum
• Absolute encoders which give the actual
angular position.
• When disc is rotated pulse out put is produced
by the sensor with the number of pulses being
proportional to the angle of rotating disc.

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• In practice three concentric tracts with three
sensors are used.
• The inner tract is with one hole for locating the home
position.
• The other tracts with equally spaced holes.
• The hole in the middle tract offsets the outer tract
• This offset enables the direction of rotation.
• In a clockwise direction the pulse in the outer tract
lead that that in the inner tract.
• The resolution is determined by the number of slots

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 Resolution
• 60 slots in one revolution
• 360 /60 = 6

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 Ryder Winck

Optical Encoder Components

 Ryder Winck

Encoder Disks
Incremental Disk Absolute Disks

Binary Gray Code

 Ryder Winck

Encoder Reliability and Errors

• Resolution
360
– Incremental   where N=# of windows.
N
• Resolution can be increased by reading both rising and
360 360
falling edges (  
2 N) and by using quadrature (
 
4 N).

360
– Absolute  where
n n=# of tracks.
2

360
  90
4
 Ryder Winck

Applications

• Any linear/rotary position/velocity sensing

– DC Motor control – robotics/automation
– Mechanical computer mouse
– Digital readouts for measurement gauges
– Tachometers – planes, trains and automobiles
Eddy Current Proximity Sensor

84
 Eddy Current Sensors
• An eddy current is a local electric current induced in a
conductive material by the magnetic field produced by the
active coil. This local electric current in turn induces a magnetic
field opposite in sense to the one from the active coil and
reduces the inductance in the coil.

When the distance between the target

and the probe changes, the impedance
of the coil changes correspondingly.
This change in impedance can be
detected by a carefully arranged bridge
circuit. The eddy currents are confined
to shallow depths near the conductive
target surface.
 Eddy Current Transducer
The Eddy Current Transducer
uses the effect of eddy (circular)
currents to sense the proximity
of non-magnetic but conductive
materials.
A typical eddy current transducer
contains two coils: an active coil
(main coil) and a balance coil.
The active coil senses the
presence of a nearby conductive
object, and balance coil is used
to balance the output bridge
circuit and for temperature
compensation.
 Application ….Dynamic Motion
Measuring the dynamics of a continuously moving target,
such as a vibrating element, requires some form of
noncontact measurement. Eddy-Current sensors are
useful whether the environment is clean or dirty and the
motions are relatively small. Eddy-current sensors also
have high frequency response (up to 80kHz) to
accommodate high-speed motion.
Drive shaft monitoring
Vibration measurements
 Material Thickness Measurement
 Thickness measurements are possible with eddy
current inspection within certain limitations.
 Only a certain amount of eddy currents can form
in a given volume of material.
 Therefore, thicker materials will support more
eddy currents than thinner materials.
 The strength (amount) of eddy currents can be
measured and related to the material thickness.
Magnetic Field
From Probe

Test
Material

Eddy Currents
Material Thickness Measurement (cont.)

Eddy current inspection is often used in the aviation

industries to detect material loss due to corrosion
and erosion.
Material Thickness Measurement (cont.)
Eddy current inspection is used extensively to
inspect tubing at power generation and
petrochemical facilities for corrosion and erosion.
 Crack Detection
Crack detection is one of the primary uses of eddy
current inspection. Cracks cause a disruption in the
circular flow patterns of the eddy currents and
weaken their strength. This change in strength at
the crack location can be detected.

Magnetic Field
From Test Coil

Magnetic Field
From
Eddy Currents

Crack
Eddy Currents
 Nonconductive Coating Measurement
Nonconductive coatings on electrically conductive
substrates can be measured very accurately with
eddy current inspection. (Accuracy of less that one mil is not
uncommon.)
 The coating displaces the eddy current probe from the conductive
base material and this weaken the strength of the eddy currents.
 This reduction in strength can be measured and related to coating
thickness.

Nonconductive
Coating

Conductive
Base Metal

Eddy Currents
Eddy Current Proximity Sensor

93
Inductive Proximity switch

94
 Inductance

• Two types of inductance:

• 1. Self inductance: the ratio of the flux produced by a circuit (a
conductor or a coil) in itself and the current that produces it.
Usually denoted as Lii.
• 2. Mutual inductance: the ratio of the flux produced by circuit
i in circuit j and the current in circuit i that produced it.
Denoted as Mij.
• A mutual inductance exists between any two circuits as long as
there a magnetic field (flux) that couples the two.
• This coupling can be large (tightly coupled circuits) or small
(loosely coupled circuits).
Inductive Proximity switch

96
 Inductive sensors
• Most inductive sensors relay on self inductance,
mutual inductance or transformer concepts
• Inductors require currents to sense (passive devices)
• A magnetic field is produced - the sensor can be said
to respond to changes in this magnetic field.
• The most common type of stimuli sensed by
inductive sensors are position (proximity),
displacement and material composition.
• Inductance and induction is often used to sense
other quantities indirectly.
Hall effect sensors

100
When a beam of charged particles passes through
a magnetic field, forces act on the particles and the
beam is deflected from a straight path.

When a conductor is placed in a magnetic field

perpendicular to the direction of the electrons, they
will be deflected from a straight path
.
 As a consequence, one plane of the conductor
will become negatively charged and the contrary
side will become positively charged.

 The voltage between these planes is called Hall

voltage 101
Two kinds of Hall effect sensors.
• 1. Linear which means the output
of voltage linearly depends on
magnetic flux density;
• 2. Threshold which means there
will be a sharp decrease of
output voltage at each magnetic
flux density.
102
103
Hall effect sensors

104
• This output Hall voltage is given as:

• Where:
• VH is the Hall Voltage in volts
• RH is the Hall Effect co-efficient
• I is the current flow through the sensor in amps
• t is the thickness of the sensor in mm
• B is the Magnetic Flux density in Teslas

105
Hall effect sensors - applications

106
 Piezoelelectric Transducers
• Convert mechanical energy into electrical energy
• If any crystal is subject to an external force F, there will be an atomic
displacement, x
– The displacement is related to the applied force in exactly the same
way as elastic sensor such as spring

• Asymmetric crystalline material such as Quartz, Rochelle Salt and Barium

Tantalite produce an emf when they are placed under stress

• An externally force, entering the sensor through its pressure port, applies
pressure to the top of a crystal
– This produces an emf across the crystal proportional to the magnitude
of the applied pressure
 Piezoelelectric Transducers
• A piezoelectric crystal is placed between two
plate electrodes
• Application of force on such a plate will
 With
develop
certainacrystals,
stress and a corresponding
this deformation will
deformation
produce a potential
difference at the
surface of the crystal
 This effect is called
piezoelectric effect

The piezoelectric effect

108
 Piezoelelectric Transducers
• Induced charge is proportional to the impressed force
Q=dF
– d= charge sensitivity (C/m2)/(N/m2) = proportionality
constant
• Output voltage E= g t P
– t= crystal thickness
– P = impressed pressure
– g=voltage sensitivity (V/m)/(N/m2)
• Shear stress can also produce piezoelectric effect
• Widely used as inexpensive pressure transducers for dynamic
measurements
109
 Piezoelelectric Transducers
• Piezoelelectric sensors have good frequency
response
• Example: Accelerometer

Piezoelectric accelerometer

110
 Piezoelelectric Transducers
• Example: Pressure Sensors
• Detect pressure changes by
the displacement of a thin
metal or semiconductor
diaphragm
• A pressure applied on the
diaphragm causes a strain
on the piezoelectric crystal
• The crystal generates
voltage at the output
• This voltage is proportional
to the applied pressure
111
Pyroelectric sensors

112
113
Pyroelectric sensors

114
• Pyroelectric material e.g. lithium tnatalate, are
crystalline materials which generate charge in
response to heat flow.
• When such material is heated to a
temperature below curie temperature (610°)
• And electric dipole within the material and it
becomes polarised .

115
• A pyro electric sensor consists of a polarised
pyroelectric crystal with thin metal film
electrodes on opposite faces.
• Because the crystal is polarised with charged
surfaces, ions are drawn form the
surrounding air and electrons form any
measuring circuit. Connected to the sensor.
• To balance the surface charge.
• Application: to detect the motion of human
or other heat source.
116
IR SENSOR
 WORKING
• IR sensor works on the principle of emitting IR
rays and receiving the reflected ray by a
receiver (Photo Diode).
• IR source (LED) is used in forward bias.
• IR Receiver (Photodiode) is used in reverse
bias.
Load cell

119
 Load cell

When compressive forces changes the resistance change of the

strain gauges and hence the applied force.
Signal conditioning circuit is used to eliminate then resistance
change due to temp. changes.
120
• Used for forces upto 10MN
• Non-liearity error is about ±
0.03%
• Hysteresis error ± 0.02%

121
Pressure measuring sensors

122
Capsule Pressure sensors

123
• Cpasules can bea just two corrugated
diaphragms combined .
• LVDT to a pressure sensor with electrical
output.
• Are made up of stainless steel, phosphor
bronze, nickel, rubber, nylon
• Pressure range of 103 - 108 Pa

124
125
Thermistors

126
 Thermistors.:-

 A thermistor is a semiconductor made by

sintering mixtures of metallic oxide, such as
oxides of manganese, nickel, cobalt, copper, and
uranium.
A thermistor is a type of resistor used to measure
temperature changes, relying on the change in its
resistance with changing temperature.
Thermistors have a negative temperature
coefficient. That is, their resis­tance decreases as
their temperature rises.
Thermistors

128
Leads, coated Glass encased Surface mount

129
Resistance- temperature relationship :
Rt=K e β/t

Rt – Resistance at temperature t
K & β constants

130
This graph shows the thermistor’s resistance against
temperature.
resistance of a thermistor decreases as the temperature
increases.
131
 Advantages
• Rugged & very small
• Hence possible to measure temp virtually at a
point.
• Small and hence respond very raidly to
changes in temp.
• Large change in resistance per degree change
in temp.
• Disadvantage : non-linearity
132