Session I.2.

10

Part I Review of Fundamentals

Module 2 Basic Physics and Mathematics
Used in Radiation Protection
Session 10 Basic Mathematics

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 Introduction

 Basic mathematics needed to perform

calculations will be reviewed
 Differentiation and integration; exponential
and natural logarithmic functions;
properties of logs and exponents;
properties of differentials and integrals;
and work out some health-physics related
problems

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 Content

 Concepts of differentiation and integration

 Exponential and natural logarithmic functions
 Properties of logs and exponents
 Properties of differentials and integrals
 Solve sample health-physics related
problems

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 Overview

 Basic health-physics related mathematics

will be discussed
 Health physics-related sample problems will
be worked to illustrate use of the
mathematical principles discussed

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 Definition of the Derivative

y = f(x)

f (x) is the derivative of f(x)

f (x) is also called the differential of y with
respect to x

f (x) is defined as:

f (x) =
dy
= lim f(x +  x) – f(x)
dx x  0 x
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d
dx (c) = 0 where c is a constant
Constant Rule for
d du Differentiation
dx (cu) = c dx

d du dv Sum and Difference Rule

(u  v) = 
dx dx dx
d
dx (x n
) = nx n-1
Power Rule for Differentiation

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 Product and Quotient Rules
for Differentiation

d dv du
(uv) = u +v
dx dx dx

v du - u dv
d u dx dx
= v2
dx v

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 Chain and Power Rules for
Differentiation

dy dy du
=
dx du dx

dy n du
dx u = nu n-1
dx

The first rule is called the chain rule, where the functions u
and y are both functions of x.

The second rule is the power rule for functions, where u is a

function of x.

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 Definition of Integral Notation
for the Anti-Derivative
A function F(x) is called an anti-derivative of a
function f(x) if for every x in the domain of f:
F(x) = f(x)
The notation for the anti-derivative (called the
integral) of f(x):
f(x) dx= F(x) + C
where C is an arbitrary constant

F(x) is the anti-derivative of f(x)

That is, F (x) = f(x) for all x in the domain of f(x)

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 Inverse Relationship Between
Differentiation and Integration

d
dx
f(x) dx = f(x)

f (x) dx = f(x) + C

The first relationship shows that differentiation is the

inverse of integration.

The second relationship shows that integration is the

inverse of differentiation.
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 Basic Integration Rules

k dx = kx + C, where k is a constant
k f(x) dx = k f(x) dx
This slides shows the simplest types of integrals,
involving a constant k.

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 Basic Integration Rules

[ f(x)  g(x) ] dx = f(x) dx  g(x) dx

The integral of the sum of two functions is the sum
of the integrals of the functions.

xn+1
x n
dx =
n+1
b
a f(x) dx = F(b) - F(a)

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 Basic Integration Rules

 The previous integrals are called

“indefinite” integrals since no integration
boundaries were specified. This slide
shows an example of a “definite” integral.
a and b are constants and are called the
boundaries of the definite integral.

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 Definition of An
Exponential Function
If a > 0 and a  1, then the exponential
function with base “a” is given by
Y = ax

This is the basic definition of an exponential

function. In this definition, “a” is a constant called
the “base”.

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 Properties of Exponents

a0 = 1 a-x = 1
ax

(ab)x = axbx ax = ax-y

ay
axay = ax+y a x
a x
=
b bx
(ax)y = axy

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 Natural Exponential Function

Let y = ex
where “e” is the base of the natural logarithms
(e = 2.71828. . .)
1
x
e = lim (1 + x)
x0

This is the definition of the natural exponential function. “e”

is a constant and happens to be a transcendental number. It
is the base of the natural logarithms.

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 Definition of the Natural
Logarithmic Function
notation: ln(x) = loge(x)
ln(x) = b if and only if eb = x
ln(ex) = x and eln(x) = x

ex and ln(x) are inverse functions of each other

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 Properties of Exponentials
and Natural Logarithms

ln(1) = 0 e0 = 1

ln(e) = 1 e1 = e

ln(e-1) = -1 eln(2) = e0.693 = 2

ln(2)  0.693 1
e = e
-1

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 Additional Properties
of Natural Logarithms

ln(xy) = ln(x) + ln(y)

x
ln( y ) = ln(x) – ln(y)

ln(xy) = y ln(x)

These are the rules for taking natural logs of

products and quotients of variables and a
variable raised to a power.
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 Derivative of the
Natural Logarithmic Function

d ln(x) = 1
dx x

d ln(u) = 1 du
dx u dx

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 Log Rule for Integration

1
(x )dx = ln(x) + C
where C is a constant

1 du
( u )( dx )dx = ln(u) + C
The integral of 1/x does not obey the basic power rule
for variables shown earlier. It is a special case and is
defined as the natural log of x.
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 Sample Problem No. 1

Solve (by integration) the basic differential

equation for radioactive decay

dN
dt = -N
where N is the number of radioactive atoms of a given
radionuclide present at time t;
 Is the radioactive decay constant, in units of sec-1
Assume that the initial number of radioactive atoms at t =
0 is N0

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 Solution to
Sample Problem No. 1
dN
dt = -N
We multiply both sides of the equation by dt and divide both
sides by N.
dN = - Ndt

dN
N = -  dt
We integrate both sides of the equation.
dN
( N ) = - dt
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 Solution to
Sample Problem No. 1

we get a family of functions

ln(N) = -t + C of t related to each other by
a constant C.
let C = ln(N0)

ln(N) = - t + ln(N0)
We then subtract ln N0 from
ln(N) - ln(N0) = - t both sides of the equation.

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 Solution to
Sample Problem No. 1
Using the rule for logs, we further
N simplify the expression.
ln ( ) = - t
No
We then take the exponential of both
N sides of the equation.
eln( N )
o = e(-t )

N Exponential and natural log functions

= e- t are inverses of each other, this
No
simplifies the expression on the left to
simply N/N0.

N(t) = N0 e- t Multiply both sides of the

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equation by N0 slide 25 of 50
 Sample Problem No. 2

Show that
n
A 1
=
Ao 2

where A is the remaining activity of any

radionuclide after an elapsed time of “n”
half-lives and A0 is the initial activity at time
t=0

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 Solution to
Sample Problem No. 2

We know from the previous problem that

N(t) = N0 e- t

where  is the radioactive decay constant, in units of

sec-1 ; t is the elapsed decay time in seconds;
N0 is the initial number of radioactive atoms at t = 0.

Multiply both side of the above equation by  to get

N(t) = N0 e- t
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 Solution to
Sample Problem No. 2
Now recall that activity is simply A = N, so that
the previous equation (which was in terms of
radioactive atoms) can be written in terms of
activity, as:

A = A0 e-t

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 Solution to
Sample Problem No. 2
Solve the equation for an elapsed decay time “t”
equal to “n” half-lives where T½ is the half-life
ln(2)
A = A0 e -t
and recall  =
T½
A ln(2)
= e T nT
- ½

A
Ao ½

= e- nln(2)
Ao
ln(2 -n)
= e
n
1
= 2-n = 2

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 Summary

 Basic mathematics needed to perform

health physics calculations was reviewed

 Students learned about differentiation

and integration; exponential and natural
logarithmic functions; properties of logs
and exponents; properties of differentials
and integrals; and worked example
health-physics related problems

1.20 slide 30 of 50
 Session I.2.11

Part I Review of Fundamentals

Module 2 Basic Physics and Mathematics

Used in Radiation Protection

Session 11 Basic Statistics-Precision

& Accuracy

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 Precision

 Precision is an indication of how close

the elements of a series of measurements
are to each other.
 It is desirable to have results that are
precise, the results are grouped close
together and not scattered.

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 Precision

Good Precision

Poor Precision

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 Accuracy

 Accuracy is a measure of the difference

between a measured value and the true
value, that is, the error.

 If the errors of measurement average to

zero, then the system is said to be accurate.

 It is desirable to have a system that is

accurate, that is, has results that are close
to the true value.
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 Accuracy

Good Accuracy

Poor Accuracy

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 Precision and Accuracy

 A system may be precise even though it is

not accurate.
 Conversely, a system may be accurate, but
not precise.

Good Precision
Good Accuracy

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 Precision and Accuracy
Summary

Possible Good Poor

Results Precision Precision
Precise Imprecise
Good
and but
Accuracy
Accurate Accurate
Precise Imprecise
Poor
but and
Accuracy
Inaccurate Inaccurate

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 Session I.2.12

Part I Review of Fundamentals

Module 2 Basic Physics and Mathematics
Used in Radiation Protection
Session 12 Statistics – Mean, Mode etc

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 Overview

 In this session we will discuss fundamental

statistical quantities such as
 Mean
 Mode
 Median
 Standard deviation
 Standard error
 Confidence Intervals

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 Mean
The sum of the values of observations
divided by the number of observations is
called the mean which is designated .
Consider the following 6 observations
1.7 3.2 3.2 4.6 1.4 2.8
the mean is calculated as follows

 = (1.7 + 3.2 + 3.2 + 4.6 + 1.4 + 2.8)

6
 = 16.9 = 2.82
6
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 Median

The median is the middle observation when the

observations are arranged in order of their
magnitude (size).

For an even number of observations, the median

is the mean of the two middle observations.

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 Median

The ordered set of the 6 observations used to

demonstrate the mean is

1.4 1.7 2.8 3.2 3.2 4.6

Because the number of observations is even

(6) the median is calculated as

(2.8 + 3.2) 6
2 = 2 = 3

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 Mode

The mode is the measurement that occurs

most often in a set of observations.
For the dataset

1.4 1.7 2.8 3.2 3.2 4.6

the mode is 3.2

Some datasets may have more than one

mode and some have none.
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 Standard Deviation

The standard deviation () is a measure of how

much a distribution varies from the mean.
For the dataset
1.7 3.2 3.2 4.6 1.4 2.8 ( = 2.82)

(xi - )2 ½
= =
(n-1)
½
(1.4 – 2.82)2 + (1.7 – 2.82)2 + (2.8 – 2.82)2 + (3.2 – 2.82)2 + (3.2 – 2.82)2 + (4.6 – 2.82)2
(6 – 1)

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 Standard Deviation

½
(2.02 + 1.25 + 0.0004 + 0.14 + 0.14 + 3.17)
=
5
½
6.72
= 5 = 1.16

The standard deviation is often called the

standard error of the mean, or simply the
standard error.
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 Confidence Intervals

A confidence interval for a parameter of

interest indicates a measure of assurance
(probability) that the interval includes the
parameter of interest.

Example

“We are 95% confident that the mean of a

series of mass measurements is between 8.4
and 10.1 kg.”
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 Confidence Intervals

95%
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 Confidence Intervals

It is possible to define two statistics, t 1 and t2

such that a parameter being estimated

Pr(t1    t2) = 1 - 

where  is some fixed probability.

The assertion that  lies in this interval will be

true, on average, in proportion to 1 -  of the
cases when this is true.
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 Confidence Intervals

 A confidence interval about the mean of a normal

population assumes:
 a two-sided confidence interval about the
population mean is desired
 the population variance, 2, is known
 the confidence coefficient is 0.95.
For a standardized normal distribution, this means that
95% of the normal distribution lies between –1.96 and
+1.96
Pr { (Y-1.96) <  < (Y+1.96) }

Where Y=
(xi)
n slide 49 of 50
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