Cryptography and Coding

Theory
Cryptography

CRYPTOGRAPHY - ORIGIN
Human beings from ages had two inherent needs –
(a)to communicate and share information and
(b)to communicate selectively.
These two needs gave rise to the art of coding the
messages in such a way that only the intended
people could have access to the information.
Unauthorized people could not extract any
information, even if the scrambled messages fell in
The art and science of concealing the messages to
introduce secrecy in information security is
recognized as cryptography.
The word 'cryptography' was coined by combining
two Greek words, 'Krypto' meaning hidden and
'graphien' meaning writing. So cryptography itself
can be translated to hidden writing.
Evolution of Cryptography
Cryptography has been around for a really long
time, even before computers and the Internet.
People always wanted to hide their messages, so
they found clever ways to do it.
One of the earliest known
uses of cryptography dates
back to ancient Egypt,
around 2000 BCE. Grave
walls and other surfaces
were hidden with
hieroglyphics and symbols to
convey important messages.
These symbols were like a
secret language that only a
Another famous example
comes from ancient Greece.
The Spartans were warriors
and used a technique called
the Scytale. They tied a
piece of paper to a tree of a
certain size and wrote their
message along the length of
the paper. If the message
was released from the wand,
During and after the European Renaissance, various
Italian and Papal states led the rapid proliferation of
cryptographic techniques. Various analysis and
attack techniques were researched in this era to
break the secret codes.
– Improved coding techniques such as Vigenere Coding
came into existence in the 15th century, which offered
moving letters in the message with a number of
variable places instead of moving them the same
number of places.
– Only after the 19th century, cryptography evolved from
the ad hoc approaches of encryption to the more
sophisticated art and science of information security.
– In the early 20th century,
the invention of
mechanical and
electromechanical
machines, such as the
Enigma rotor machine,
provided more advanced
and efficient means of
coding the information.
– During the period of
World War II, both
With the advances taking place in this field,
government organizations, military units, and some
corporate houses started adopting the applications
of cryptography.
They used cryptography to guard their secrets from
others. Now, the arrival of computers and the
Internet has brought effective cryptography within
the reach of common people.
Cryptography Origin
Ancient Beginnings − Long ago, ancient
civilizations like Egypt and Greece began using
secret codes to hide their messages. They used
special signs and techniques like Scytale to secure
their message.
Evolution in Antiquity − Over time, people in
places like Rome got smarter about keeping secrets.
Medieval − During the Middle Ages, people also
developed private laws. Sophisticated ciphers were
developed, such as the Vigenère Cipher, which uses
keywords to scramble messages.
Revolution and Knowledge − In later times,
intellectuals such as Leon Battista Alberti and Blaise
de Vigenaire further improved the laws. It was
rigorously disassembled and used for vital tasks
Military and Commonwealth Importance −
Private codes have become too expensive for
militaries and states. It was used to plan wars, spy
on the enemy, and communicate secretly with other
nations.
Industrial Revolution − With the advent of
machines during the Industrial Revolution, people
wrote even more beautiful code. Devices like
The Modern Era − Now, thanks to computers and
the Internet, privacy laws are more important than
ever. Intelligent people create special rules and
regulations to keep our messages safe when they
are transmitted over the Internet.
Relevance in modern society − Privacy laws are
relevant today. They help keep our information safe
while shopping online or sending messages to
From 1800 to the First World War
From the 1800s until the First World War,
cryptography made great strides. Charles Babbage
and Frederick Kasisky made breakthroughs in latent
mathematical analysis. Cipher solving techniques
developed by Edgar Allan Poe became popular.
Cryptography played a role in historical events such
as the Mata Hari murder and the Dreyfus case.
Gilbert Varnam proposed the teleprinter cipher,
which led to the development of cipher devices and
unbreakable disposable pads. The pre-World War II
enigma mathematical methods of William F.
Friedman and Marion Rejewski also became
prominent.
When was encryption invented, and by whom?
The first written evidence of encryption can be
traced back to ancient Egypt. About 4,000 years
ago, the tomb of nobleman Khnumhotep II
contained inscriptions made during his lifetime.
However, some unusual images were used that
obscured the original meaning of the text. In Egypt,
ancient encryption was primarily used to protect
The first recorded use of encryption for military
purposes dates back to about 500 B.C. Spartan
encryption uses a feature called scytale, which
could send and receive secret messages. A thin strip
of leather was placed around the tube and text was
written along the length of the tube. Once the tape
was wrapped from the cylinder, the text became
eligible unless the reader had the same cylinder.
The first type of encryption
The first type of encryption is a substitution cipher
which uses a very simple method to substitute other
units (characters or groups of characters) for other
units based on various substitution rules, e.g., A=N,
B=O and so on. Before computers sender and
receiver Encryption security was ensured by
installing cipher keys nearby. Thus, even if the
CRYPTOGRAPHY - HISTORY
Cryptography allows us to engage safely in the
digital world by encrypting and transmitting
"messages" to the appropriate recipient with the
help of algorithms and keys. This encryption is used
for digital signatures, data privacy, online
transactions, and other purposes. It helps us to
authenticate individuals and devices by maintaining
digital trust.
How Did This All Begin?
The word cryptography is derived from the Greek
words kryptos, meaning hidden, and graphien,
meaning to write. This "hidden writing" has been
evolving over thousands of years.
What propels cryptography forward is the same
thing that takes it down. The more adept individuals
grow at reading encrypted messages, the more
So in this chapter we will divide the cryptography
into different sections like −
– Early Cryptography
– 20th century cryptography
– Cryptanalysis
– The future of cryptography
Early Cryptography
Cryptography has been
around for a really long time,
even back in ancient
civilizations like Ancient
Egypt and the Byzantine
Empire. People used simple
methods like hiding
messages in symbols or
using some special codes to
This was important for rulers, religious leaders, and
military generals who needed to send some really
secret messages.
As time went on, especially during the Classical Era
and the Middle Ages, cryptography became even
more advanced. The Byzantine Empire used fancy
techniques like homophonic ciphers, while scholars
in the Islamic Golden Age came up with some really
In medieval Europe, encryption played a big role in
diplomacy and politics. Rulers and powerful figures
relied on secret codes to protect important
information. They used tools like Scytale, a special
cylinder-shaped device, to send messages securely.
Throughout history, cryptography kept evolving.
People like Johannes Trithemius wrote books that
helped improve some really cool cryptographic
In the Middle Ages, cryptographers became skilled
at breaking codes, which was important for
gathering intelligence during times of conflict and
political interest.
Overall, cryptography has always been about
keeping information safe, whether it was in ancient
times or during the Middle Ages. It helped rulers and
diplomats communicate secretly and securely in a
20th century cryptography
At the time of World War-II cryptography has been
played a crucial role for keeping data secure and
gaining strategic benefits. And at the time of World
War-I both sides used some tricky codes to hide
their communications. For example, the British
cracked a German code called ADFGVX cipher and
intercepted important messages, like the
The use of cryptographic techniques increased
during World War-II. The Germans used an
encryption device called the Enigma, and the Allies,
especially the British at Bletchley Park, made great
efforts to decipher these clues. Enigma encryption
proved crucial to Allied victories of importance, and
brought the war to a swift end.
After World War-II, in the field of cryptography we
have seen significant growth. Throughout the Cold
War era, thinkers like Whitfield Diffie and Martin
Hellman created innovative techniques like public-
key cryptography to enable secure communications
without requiring a shared private key.
In today's technologically advanced world,
cryptography has gained even more significance,
Cryptanalysis
Cryptanalysis is the process of splitting codes and
ciphers. Throughout history, cryptanalysis has
played an important part in fighting and espionage.
During World War II, the Allied troops were able to
break the German Enigma machine, which played
an important part in the fight. Today, cryptanalysis
is mostly used for security testing and investigation.
Historical Perspectives (3000 BCE−present)
Cryptanalysis, the art of breaking code and
deciphering encrypted messages, has a long and
storied history dating back to ancient civilizations.
Throughout history, crypto analysts have used
various techniques to decipher hidden codes and
uncover hidden messages. One of the earliest cases
of cryptanalysis dates back to ancient Egypt, where
In the middle ages, cryptanalysts played an
important role in the processing of secret messages
in diplomacy and military negotiations by definition.
Notable figures in cryptanalysis included Al-Kindi
during the Islamic Golden Age, codebreakers in
Britain's Bletchley Park during WWII, who was able
to decrypt German Enigma machine messages.
These developments in cryptanalysis had a
Techniques and Methods (3000 BCE−present)
Cryptanalysis includes several methods and
techniques for decrypting encrypted messages. A
basic technique is frequency analysis, which
involves analyzing the frequency of characters or
symbols in encrypted messages to identify patterns
and assess underlying clarity.
Some other techniques and brute force attacks,
where all possible keys are systematically checked
until exact CipherText Pairs Entered is found.
Cryptanalysts throughout history have developed
and refined these techniques, often using
improvements on mathematics, computing and
cryptography are used to break increasingly
complex codes and ciphers.
Role in Modern Cryptography (1945−present)
Cryptanalysis continues to play an important role in
modern cryptography by uncovering vulnerabilities
in cryptographic systems and protocols. As
cryptographic techniques evolve and become more
sophisticated, cryptographers work tirelessly to
identify vulnerabilities and develop attacks that
exploit them. This game of cat and mouse between
In the post World War II, cryptanalysis helped
develop encryption systems such as DES and RSA,
and went on to shape modern cryptography
standards and best practices development.
The Future of Cryptography
Quantum Cryptography (2000−present)
Quantum cryptography uses principles of quantum
mechanics to make their communication
theoretically impossible to achieve. The potential
impact of quantum computers on cryptography lies
in their ability to successfully solve some of the
mathematical problems underlying many traditional
To mitigate this risk, researchers are actively
developing cryptographic algorithms that resist
quantum indistinguishable attacks from classical
quantum computers. These efforts aim to secure
digital communications in the quantum computer
era.
Block chain and Cryptocurrency
(2008−present)
Block chain technology relies heavily on
cryptography to ensure the security and integrity of
transactions in a decentralized network.
Cryptography is used to create digital signatures,
hash functions, and cryptographic puzzles that
prevent unauthorized access and manipulation of
In the realm of cryptocurrency, cryptographic
techniques are used to secure digital wallets,
consume verification of transactions, and immutable
transaction records are maintained on the block
chain and transparent nature, When combined with
cryptographic technology, it provides a robust
framework for secure and untrusted transactions
without the need for intermediaries.
Post-Quantum Cryptography (2010−present)
Post-quantum cryptography refers to cryptographic
algorithms and protocols designed to resist attacks
on classical quantum computers. The advent of
quantum computers threatens to break traditional
cryptographic schemes, thus necessitating new
cryptographic primitives secure from quantum
attacks Post-quantum cryptography includes lattice-
There are ongoing research and development efforts
in this area and the goal is to identify anti-quantum
cryptographic algorithms that can withstand the
power of quantum computing, and ensure the
convergence of digital communication and
information systems ban for a long time.
Privacy and Security Challenges
(2000−present)
The digital age has brought many privacy and
security challenges, including data breaches,
identity theft and surveillance. Cryptography plays
an important role in addressing these challenges by
providing methods for encrypting sensitive data,
authenticating users, ensuring privacy and
The introduction of data protection regulations, the
proliferation of cyber threats, and other topics have
highlighted the importance of using cryptography to
protect personal privacy and put the emphasis on
protecting sensitive information in the digital age.
CRYPTOGRAPHY - PRINCIPLES
In the field of cryptography, there are some
important concepts and principles that we should
use when working with cryptographic systems.
These fundamental principles play a crucial role in
ensuring secure communication and securing data.
The key principles include confidentiality, integrity,
authenticity, non-repudiation, and key management.
Confidentiality
The main idea of Confidentiality is to keep data safe
so that information stays private and secure.
Cryptography techniques like encryption, help us
with this by making data unreadable to people who
are not authorized to see it.
Example
Here is an example with WhatsApp −
Let us imagine an example of two people, Person A
and Person B. They are chatting on WhatsApp. When
Person A sends a message to Person B over
WhatsApp chat. WhatsApp encodes it in some
unreadable format. So that some third person
cannot understand it.
So the chat will remain private between those two
people who are communicating with each other.
Other people like hackers and WhatsApp developers
cannot read the messages because they are
encrypted.
We can trust WhatsApp to keep our personal
information or data like our phone number, chat
history, safe and private. WhatsApp has some strict
Messaging apps like WhatsApp use end to end
encryption which means that only Person A and
Person B can only read and understand the
messages they have sent to each other. Not even
the creators of that particular app have rights to see
or read the messages.
So, confidentiality means keeping our data safe, like
our private messages and ensuring only the right
Integrity
Integrity means ensuring that our data in transit or
after receiving is intact or not. Or we can say that, it
is the ability to make sure that data or information
has not been changed or modified with. So for this
purpose we use Cryptographic techniques like hash
functions. Has Functions are basically used to check
the integrity of the data by finding out the changes
Example
Let us say two people are collaborating on a project
and Person A needs to share important documents
and files with each other. So they have to ensure the
integrity of these files to maintain the accuracy and
reliability of the information exchanged.
So they need to use checksums to create digital
fingerprints of those files before sending it to each
And use encrypted methods like password protected
platforms or they can use email attachments to
prevent unauthorized access at the time of file
transmission.
After receiving the file by the recipient the integrity
will be verified by calculating checksums. If both the
checksums are matching then it is confirmed that
the file is not modified or altered.
They can also use version control systems or
platforms with revision history to track file changes
and save previous versions. This thing can prevent
accidental data loss.
Authentication
Authentication is the process of validating the
identity of a user or device. Cryptographic methods,
like digital signatures, can be used to securely verify
the identification of a person or device.
Example
Let us take an example of online banking account
for understanding the concept of authentication −
So if an account holder is logging into his online
banking account which needs his username and
password.
Some banks use two factor authentication for
security like sending a one time password to the
phone number of the user to confirm his identity.
And also some banks use advanced security
methods like fingerprint or facial recognition which
These methods make sure that only the right person
who is authorized, can access their accounts,
protecting sensitive financial information from
unauthorized access.
In the above example, authentication ensures that
the only correct person has access rights to access
their online banking accounts.
By providing multiple security layers of verification,
Non-repudiation
Non repudiation is a method of stopping a person
from denying that he or she has committed a
particular act or crime. So if somebody denies that
this data is not sent by him we can identify this kind
of activity by using non-repudiation. Cryptographic
techniques like digital signatures can be used that
allow the sender to verify that the message was
Example
Let us imagine that one employee is sending an
email with an important document to his colleague.
Not rejecting it ensures that once you send an
email, you cannot later say you did not send it.
This is because the email system records and
timestamps your actions which provides proof of
your activity.
Just like this, when your colleague receives an email,
he or she refuses to receive it because their email
system also records the transaction and displays the
timeout.
A disclaimer helps parties establish responsibility
and trust in digital communication and
communication without denying involvement.
Key management
Key management is the process of creating,
distributing, and managing cryptographic keys. By
managing cryptographic keys we can secure our
cryptographic system, as the keys are a very
important part of the cryptography system. So the
security of the system depends on the secrecy of
the key.
Example
Let us say you have encrypted the data that you
want to share with the friend. And you need a key to
decode that data. And your friend needs the same
key to open the data. So key management ensures
that −
– You securely create a key or password for the data.
– You securely share the key with the friend without
So in the above example key management plays an
important role to securely create, share and use
cryptographic keys. This will help to protect private
information.
CRYPTOGRAPHY - APPLICATIONS
In real life cryptography plays an important role.
Cryptography is just all about keeping our data or
messages secure so only the intended person who
sends it and the one who is receiving the data or
message can understand it.
It is mostly about encryption which means changing
normal text into cipher text or in encoded form and
then changing it back to its normal form when
Cryptography is mostly used to make messages
secret when we send messages to somebody. Here
the simple thing is when we send the message to
someone it will get encrypted and when the person
receives the message the message will get
decrypted so the person can read that message. So
this is a very simple and basic example and
application of Cryptography. There are various
Let us divide the applications as per the
cryptography principles - Confidentiality, Integrity,
Authenticity and Non-Repudiation −
Confidentiality
As we have already seen what exactly
Confidentiality is in the last chapter. So now we will
discuss the applications based on it. Basically we
need Confidentiality in secure messaging and data
Secure Messaging/Transmission
Secure messaging means sending messages, emails
and files in such a way that it will be received safely
without being hacked or modified by the hackers.
This is very important as we do not want anyone
else to read the private information or see the
sensitive information.
Let us see how it works
– Before sending the messages the message will be
encrypted(unreadable text or format). This will be
difficult to read by the third party.
– When the message reaches the authorized recipient
they will use their secret key to decrypt(back to
original) the message.
– To make sure only the intended receiver can decrypt
the message both the parties will exchange secret keys
Examples of Secure Messaging
There are two categories for secure messaging: first
is end to end encryption and second is email
encryption.
– Messaging apps like WhatsApp, Telegram, Instagram
and other messaging apps use end to end encryption.
Which means only the intended recipient can read the
messages.
– Services like Pretty Good Privacy(PGP) or
Storage/Data Encryption
Data encryption is just like keeping the information
in a box which is locked and before sending it via
the internet or saving it in the device. It basically
keeps our sensitive data secure from hackers.
Let us see how it works
– First we need to apply an encryption algorithm which is
a set of mathematical rules. The algorithm then
encodes the data into unrecognizable form.
– Then we will use a key or password to encrypt and
decrypt the data.
– After that the data will be transformed into cipher text
with the help of encryption algorithm and the
encryption key.
Examples
– BitLocker (for Windows)
– FileVault (for macOS)
– Data Encryption in SSL/TLS
By using secure messaging and data encryption, we
can communicate and store information online with
confidence and our private data will remain private.
Integrity
Now we will discuss Integrity in secure
transmission/messaging and secure data storage.
Secure Transmission/Messaging
Some network users are not as concerned about
privacy as they are about integrity. In electronic
funds transfers, funds transferred from one account
to another are usually in the public domain.
If a working tapper can produce fake transfers,
money can be distributed illegally. Inaccuracies in
individual bits can result in millions of dollars in
incorrect credits or debits. Encryption techniques
are often used to ensure that intentional or
accidental manipulation of data transmissions will
not reflect innocent behavior.
Secure Data Storage
The main reason for assuring the integrity of stored
data is access control. Access measures include lock
and key systems, guards, and other physical or
logical measures.
With the recent advent of computer viruses this has
changed dramatically, the use of cryptographic
checksums to ensure the integrity of encrypted data
Example
Here are some examples of integrity applications in
cryptography −
– Document Verification
– Software Integrity
– File Integrity Checking
– Password Storage
Authenticity
Now we will see applications in which authenticity is
a must. Let us see the applications below −
Document Authentication
Digital signatures are mostly used to authenticate
the online documents like contracts, agreements,
certificates. So when a person sign the document
digitally it means that the document is authorized
Email Authentication
When a person send an email then the mail system
uses digital signature to verify the authenticity of
the sender. Using the built in functionality sender
signs the email with the help of their private key
and the receiver can use the sender's public key to
verify the signature. This process is required to
verify that the email came from the authorized party
Biometric Authentication
Biometric authentication methods like fingerprint
scanners are used to authenticate users as per their
unique characteristics. When a person or user scans
his fingerprint to unlock a device or to access a
system, the system basically verifies the
authenticity of identity of the user as per the saved
biometric data.
Non-repudiation
Here are some examples of non-repudiation
applications in cryptography −
Financial Transactions
In Financial Transactions non Non-Repudiation is
very necessary because as we know that non-
repudiation means if one person is sent some data
then he can not deny that he did not sent that data.
So if a person deny that he has not received his
payment which is sent by the sender.
Both the sender and the receiver can digitally sign
transactions records and provide non-repudiation
record of the transaction's authorization.
Legal Contracts
Digital signatures are mostly used to sign online
legal contracts and agreements. With the help of
digitally signing a document, the signer cannot later
deny their involvement or the terms he is agreed
upon. This thing provides assurance to all parties
involved and prevents disputes over the authenticity
of signatures.
Secure Communication
In email encryption systems that support non-
repudiation the sender's identity is authenticated by
digital signatures. And it also ensure the integrity of
the message. Receiver can verify the digital
signature to confirm the sender's identity and
prevent repudiation of the message.
CRYPTOGRAPHY - BENEFITS &
DRAWBACKS
Websites have now become global and information
has passed through online form as bits and bytes.
Sensitive information is now stored, processed and
transmitted digitally in computer systems and open
communication channels.
Because information plays such a central role,
hackers target computer systems and open
communication channels to steal sensitive
Modern cryptography provides robust mechanisms
for ensuring access to information by legitimate
users and preventing the hacker's malicious intent.
Here we discuss the benefits of cryptography, its
limitations, its drawbacks, and the future of
cryptography.
Benefits of Cryptography
Below are some Benefits of Cryptography which you
need to know:
– Confidentiality − Cryptography is useful to keep our
messages and data private. It changes the form of
original data in an encoded form so only the intended
recipient can understand. Suppose you and your
colleague are discussing about your project with the
help of a messaging app so definitely your conversation
– Security − With the help of cryptography we can
protect our data or information from being tampered or
modified with by an unauthorized identity. So
cryptography also work like a locker room. It keeps our
most valuable information secure from thieves and
hackers. Even if somebody try to read data or change
your data, cryptography will make it really hard for
them to do so without the proper key.
– Authentication − Cryptography is also useful to
confirm that a message is coming from the authorized
person which ensures it is not fake or spam. So when
you receive a message it is very important to know it is
really from the authorized person. Cryptography adds
an extra layer of security which stamp to messages that
proves the person who sent the message is genuine. It
is just like a secret handshake that only you and your
colleague know.
– Integrity − Cryptography makes sure that data cannot
been changed without permission means it also
increases reliability. It ensures that the message you
receive is the same as the message that was sent
without any changes made during the way of
transmission. It helps you trust the information you get.
All of these basic services provided by cryptography
have enabled efficient and effective operation of
networks using computer systems.
Limitations of Cryptography
Cryptography is really good practice to use in your
applications but sometimes it is not perfect. There is
always a chance that unwanted resources can break
the security and get the sensitive information. So let
us talk about the limitations of cryptography in the
below section:
– Cryptography is very much dependent on Key
Management. Well if you lose the keys(public and
private key) or someone else steal the keys, your
sensitive data may not be safe anymore. So it is very
important to keep track of keys.
– There is also potential for Human Error. As cryptography
relies on people using it correctly. If developers make a
mistake in setting it up or using it. It can leave a
loophole for hackers or attackers to exploit the security.
– It is not easy to manage the resource used in the
cryptography. Encrypting and decrypting messages
may take computer power and time. So if you are
encrypting a large amount of data then it can slow
things down.
– Even if the cryptography is strong but it can be
vulnerable in implementation. If it is not correctly
implemented in software or systems it can leave
loopholes for attackers to come in the system. This
means the cryptography needs to be carefully designed
 – It does not protect against all threats. As cryptography
is a great way to protect data in transit or at rest it
cannot secure against all kinds of threats. For example
it cannot stop somebody from taking your password or
stealing your device when it is unlocked.
Overall, cryptography is a powerful tool for keeping
information secure, while it is not always good. It is
important to use it properly and understand its
limitations.
Drawbacks
In addition to the four basic elements of information
security, there are other issues that affect the
effective use of information −
– Strictly encrypted, authenticated, and digitally signed
information can be difficult to reach even for a
legitimate user at the critical decision-making moment
can attack a network if computer system and has it
disabled by an attacker.
– Encryption cannot be used to ensure high availability,
one of the key elements of information security.
Additional strategies are needed to protect against
threats such as denial of service or outage of the
information system altogether.
– Another key requirement for information security for
access options also cannot use cryptography. Similarly,
business policies and procedures must be developed.
– Cryptography does not protect against vulnerabilities
– Cryptography is expensive. Cost in time and money.
– The addition of cryptographic techniques to information
processing leads to delays.
– Implementing public key cryptography requires setting
up and maintaining a public key infrastructure that
requires a nice budget.
– The security of a cryptographic method depends on the
computational complexity of the mathematical
problems. Any computation in solving such
CRYPTOGRAPHY - MODERN AGE
Cryptography and encryption are very useful for
data security. In today's world, it is very important in
protecting cyber data. The Internet allows
computers to communicate with each other
anywhere. But with that, a lot of intruders come in
and try to make us care about what we do.
For people or companies whose job it is to keep data
secure encryption is the primary way we do that. We
Modern cryptography uses complex mathematical
techniques to encode information so that only the
intended recipient can understand it. There are two
main types of cryptography: symmetric and
asymmetric cryptography.
As the technology is evolving around, so does
cryptography and researchers are constantly
developing new ways to get ahead of potential
Classic Cryptography vs. Modern
Cryptography
Classic and modern cryptography are both methods
used to keep information secure but they are
different in many ways let us discuss these one by
one −
Technology
Classic cryptography is based on manual methods and
mechanical devices like pen and paper, mechanical
cipher machines (like Enigma), or simple electronic
circuits.
While Modern cryptography uses advanced computing
technologies like digital computers, specialized
cryptographic hardware, and software algorithms.
Security Strength
Classic cryptography mostly relies on simple substitution
or transposition techniques. This can be very easy for
modern computers to crack mainly with the help of brute
force attacks.
Modern cryptography uses more complex algorithms.
This makes it more secure against attacks. It uses
mathematical principles like prime number theory,
discrete logarithms, and elliptic curves to create best
Time Period
Classic cryptography used before the 20th century. And
techniques like Caesar ciphers and the Enigma machine
used in that time.
Modern cryptography is developed in the 20th and 21st
centuries which uses advanced mathematical algorithms
and computer technology.
Key Management
In the Classic cryptography the key management was
very challenging because keys need to be shared
securely between two parties without interception. This
feature can make classic cryptographic systems
vulnerable to attacks.
Modern cryptography uses asymmetric encryption in
which each user has a pair of keys. A public key for
encryption and A private key for decryption. This feature
Applications
Classic cryptography was mainly used for military and
diplomatic applications, as well as to get important
information in ancient times and history.
Modern cryptography is everywhere in today's digital
world, being used for online transactions, financial
transactions, data storage, and authentication methods
such as protecting digital signatures and biometrics.
Overall, while classical cryptography laid the
foundation for modern cryptographic principles,
modern cryptography offers much stronger security
and broader applications through advances in
mathematics, computer technology, and
cryptographic analysis.
Context of Cryptography
Cryptology, the study of
cryptosystems, can be
subdivided into two
branches −
– Cryptography
– Cryptanalysis
What is Cryptography?
Cryptography is the science of making a
cryptosystem with the ability to provide data
security. Cryptography deals with the actual security
of digital data. It describes the design of devices
based on accounting systems that provide basic
information security services. You can think of
cryptography as a giant tool set with methods for
What is Cryptanalysis?
Cryptanalysis is the art and science of breaking
cipher text. It is also the branch of cryptography.
The cryptographic system generates cipher text that
is transmitted or stored. It involves studying the
cryptographic devices with a view to breaking them.
Cryptanalysis is also used to test the security
properties of new cryptographic techniques as they
Note − Cryptography deals with the design of
cryptosystems and the cryptanalysis studies the
breaking of cryptosystems.
Cryptography Primitives
Cryptography primitives are nothing more than tools
and techniques in cryptography that can be
selectively used to provide desired security services
−
– Encryption
– Hash functions
– Message Authentication codes (MAC)
The below table shows the primitives that can be
achieved a particular security service on their own.
Primitives Digital
Encryption Hash Function MAC
Services Signature

Confidentiality Yes No No No

Integrity No Sometimes Yes Yes

Authentication No No Yes Yes

Non
No No Sometimes Yes
Repudiation
Note − To obtain a set of necessary security
services from a cryptosystem, cryptographic
primitives are commonly connected and have
complex relationships with one another.
End.