Welcome 

1
Last week

2
 The
Lexicon

Last week

3
 The Lexical
Lexicon categorie
s
Last week

4
 Lexical
The
categorie
Lexicon
s
Last week
Selectional poperties
Functional
categories C-selection
S-selection

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This week

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 This week

From
morpholog
y to syntax

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 This week

From Constituent
morpholog s
y to syntax

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 This week

From Constituent X-bar

morpholog s theory
y to syntax

9
From morphology
to syntax
 The Lexicon

The Lexicon

Lexical categories Functional

categories
 What is syntax?

(1) *John likes very much this house.

(2) *They dark chocolate ate every day.
(3) *Danced many girls in that park.
(4) *It danced many girls in that park.
(5) Colorless green ideas sleep furiously.
(6) *Colorless ideas sleep green furiously.
(7) John told me a secret.
(8) *John explained his whole family the problem.
(9) There lurked danger in the air.
(10)*There talked many students during the lecture.
 What is syntax?

 only certain combinations are ‘good’/

‘well-formed ‘/‘grammatical’ English
sentences
 What is syntax?

 only certain combinations are ‘good’/

‘well-formed ‘/‘grammatical’ English
sentences

 In order for good combinations to arise 

selectional features
 What is syntax?

 only certain combinations are ‘good’/ ‘well-

formed ‘/‘grammatical’ English sentences

In order for good combinations to arise 

selectional features

s-selection vs. c-selection  constraints on

how elements combine to form larger units
Constituents
 Constituents

My nephew received nice presents.

 Constituents

[[My] [nephew]] [received [nice] presents].

sequences(groups) of adjacent words

form larger cohesive units= constituents
 Constituents

[[My] [nephew]] [[received [nice]

presents]].

sequences(groups) of adjacent words

form larger cohesive units= constituents
Constituents are organized into smaller
constituents
 Constituents

[[My] [nephew]] [[received [nice]

presents]].

sequences(groups) of adjacent words

form larger cohesive units= constituents
Constituents are organized into smaller
constituents
Sentences are organized into
 Constituents

[[My] [nephew]] [[received [nice]

presents]].

sequences(groups) of adjacent words

form larger cohesive units= constituents
Constituents are organized into smaller
constituents
Sentences are organized into
 Constituents

That chocolate chip cookie might have

been good.
 Constituents

That chocolate chip cookie might have

been good.

 Semantic cohesion
 Constituents

That chocolate chip cookie might have

been good.
 Constituents

That chocolate chip cookie might have

been good.

 NO semantic cohesion
 Your turn 

The student
from China
got a good
grade.

26
 Your turn 

The student The

from China children ran
got a good to the park.
grade.
2
 Your turn 

The student The The guests

from China children ran drank
got a good to the park. themselves
grade. under the table.

2
 Constituents

There is syntactic evidence, i.e. there are

syntactic arguments which can back up
our semantic intuition that a string of
words form a cohesive unit, that they form
a constituent (a single syntactic object)
 Constituents

There is syntactic evidence, i.e. there are

syntactic arguments which can back up
our semantic intuition that a string of
words form a cohesive unit, that they form
a constituent (a single syntactic object)

 Constituency tests
 Constituency tests

John saw his brother on TV.

 Constituency tests

John saw his brother on TV.

 John saw him on TV.

 Constituency tests

I have been to Bucharest once in my life.

 Constituency tests

I have been to Bucharest once in my life.

 I have been there once in my life.

 Constituency tests

That book of linguistics gives me the

creeps.
 Constituency tests

That book of linguistics gives me the

creeps.

 That one gives me the creeps.

 Constituency tests

That books of linguistics gives me the

creeps.

 It gives me the creeps.

 Constituency tests

We replaced a string/ a sequence of words

with one single syntactic object, with no
change in acceptability
 Constituency tests

We replaced a string/ a sequence of words

with one single syntactic object, with no
change in acceptability

the SUBSTITUTION/ REPLACEMENT TEST 

only constituents can be replaced by one
single word
 Your turn 

Have you seen my cat?

Yes, ____’s under the couch.
 Your turn 

Have you seen my cat?

Yes, he’s under the couch.
 Your turn 

Have you seen my cat?

Yes, he’s under the couch.

Did you enjoy that book?

No, ___ was too full of cliches.
 Your turn 

Have you seen my cat?

Yes, he’s under the couch.

Did you enjoy that book?

No, it was too full of cliches.
 Constituency tests

He may come back any minute now, but

then again he may not [come back any
minute now].
 Constituency tests

He may come back any minute now, but

then again he may not [come back any
minute now].

I will do it if you will [do it].

 Constituency tests

He may come back any minute now, but

then again he may not [come back any
minute now].

I will do it if you will [do it].

John could lift it but I could not [lift it]

 Constituency tests

identical VPs may be omitted under

‘identity’, i.e. provided their content can
be recovered from the “context”
 Constituency tests

identical VPs may be omitted under

‘identity’, i.e. provided their content can
be recovered from the “context”

elliptical structure= VP ellipsis  only

constituents can be elided
 Your turn 

I’ll go class if you will go to class.

 Your turn 

I’ll go class if you will go to class.

John might be dancing, but then again, he

might not be dancing.
 Constituency tests

a.John read a very good book.

b.John read a very good book.
 Constituency tests

a.John read a very good book.

b.John read a very good book.

What did John read?

 Constituency tests

a.John read a very good book.

b.John read a very good book.

What did John read?

A very good book.
 Constituency tests

a.John read a very good book.

b.John read a very good book.

What did John read?

A very good book.
*a very.
 Constituency tests

Stand-alone test/sentence fragment test: if

a sequence of words can stand alone in
response to a question they form a
constituent
 Your turn 

John ate a chocolate chip cookie.

 Your turn 

John went to Brazil.

 Constituency tests

John met a girl in Sweden.

Substitution
Stand alone test
Movement?
 Constituency tests

The movement test: if a sequence of

words can move to a different position in
the sentence without resulting in
ungrammaticality, that sequence is a
constituent
 Constituency tests

In Sweden, John met a girl.

 Constituency tests

John ate a chocolate chip cookie.

A chocolate chip cookie was eaten by John.

 Constituency tests

What about:

It is a chocolate chip cookie that John ate.

 Constituency tests

It is a chocolate chip cookie that John ate.

 Cleft sentences: “Clefting involves

putting a string of words between It
is/was and that at the front of the
sentence.” (Carnie:99)​
 Constituency tests

It is a chocolate chip cookie that John ate.

Vs.

Chocolate chip cookies are what I like.

 Constituency tests

Chocolate chip cookies are what I like.

 Preposing
 Constituency tests

Chocolate chip cookies are what I like.

 Preposing: “putting the strings of words

before is/was what or is/was who at the
front of the sentence” (Carnie: 99)
 Constituency tests

John and Mary love LEC.

 Constituency tests

John and Mary love LEC.

John loves both LEC and Lit.

 Constituency tests

John and Mary love LEC.

John loves both LEC and Lit.

 Coordination
 Constituency tests

Replacement/substitution
Ellipsis
Stand alone test
Movement (preposing, clefting,
passivization)
Coordination
 Your turn 

(1)They read a book [on the beach.]

(2) [This cup of coffee] is not very good.
(3) [That cat] can be really annoying.
(4) The cat [was extremely] annoying.
(5) She has [left for London.]
 Your turn 

(6) He [ate at] a fancy restaurant.

(7) He looked [up the number].
(8) He ran [up the hill].
(9) They took [off their shoes].
(10) The book fell [off the table].
 But…

BUT…
 But…

BUT…

- There are cases where two different tests

might have contradictory results
 But…

The old book sold for millions.

The old one sold for millions.
* Book the old sold for millions.
 But…

• book = a lexical item ​

• Lexical items are the basic minimal constituents of a
sentence​
 But…

So what about: *Book the old sold for millions.​

Movement applies to constituents but movement

operations are subject to other constraints which will
independently rule out this sentence. ​
 But…

We need to apply more than one test to a given string of

words in order to check constituency
 But…

That book was written by Shakespeare.

Substitution:
Stand alone test:
Movement:
X-bar theory
 Last week

From
morpholog
y to syntax

81
 Last week

From Constituent
morphology s
to syntax
 Last week

From Constituent I read that

morphology s book
to syntax
Substitution
Ellipsis
SAT
Movement
Coordination 8
 So far

words group into constituents

A very good book

read a very good book
extremely important
 Head

- every constituent has a head

 Head

- every constituent has a head  The ‘most

important’ element in a constituent is its
head, i.e. the element which is the most
characteristic of the constituent as a whole
 Head

every constituent has a head  The ‘most

important’ element in a constituent is its
head, i.e. the element which is the most
characteristic of the constituent as a whole

- “What is this constituent about?”

 Head

Book
good book
Book of stories
good book of stories
 Task

Read Nice Proud

read a book Very nice Proud of my
read a book of Extremely students
stories nice very proud of
read that they my students
decided to...
8
 Your turn 

pleased about it
angry with him
cut the cake
most intelligent women on the planet
rather ridiculously
 Your turn 

extremely important
cakes
in the garden
under the chair
 Give this a go on your own

tiring lecture
Students annoyed with this task
Annoyed with this task
Very annoyed
On the balcony
 Give this a go on your own

Complete a task
Complete a difficult task
Run slowly
Very slowly
 From heads to phrases

How is the syntactic label of the new

object determined?

e.g. read books = ?

 From heads to phrases

How is the syntactic label of the new object

determined?

e.g. read books = ?

The label of the new object is determined

by its head= responsible for the categorial
feature of the entire constituent
 From heads to phrases

The fact that the new constituent has a

categorial feature: it can combine with
something else (in accordance with its
categorial feature)
 From heads to phrases

Read books can occur in all those contexts

in which read can occur
 From heads to phrases

John might read books.

John has read books.

John wants to read books.

John reads books fast.

 From heads to phrases

[Good book] will occur in all those contexts

in which ___ can occur
 From heads to phrases

Good book will occur in all those contexts

in which “___” can occur

a good book
John’s good book
Good books
 From heads to phrases

BUT NOT
*so good book
*too good book
 From heads to phrases

BUT NOT
*so good book
*too good book

If the head of ”good books” were “good”,

we’d expect “good book” to have the
distribution of adjectives
 So far

The head is the core element

 So far

The head is the core element

The head determines the distribution of
the whole element
 So far

The head is the core element

The head determines the distribution of
the whole element
the head selects the objects with which
it combines
 So far

The head is the core element

The head determines the distribution of
the whole element
the head selects the objects with which
it combines
The head projects its features
 So far

The head is the core element

The head determines the distribution of
the whole element
the head selects the objects with which
it combines
The head projects its features
 The standard head notation is X0
 From heads to phrases

Heads project phrases

 From heads to phrases

Read a book = Verb Phrase (VP)

 From heads to phrases

Read a book = Verb Phrase (VP)

Book of linguistics = Noun Phrase (NP)
 From heads to phrases

Read a book = Verb Phrase (VP)

Book of linguistics = Noun Phrase (NP)
very nice = Adjective Phrase (AdjP)
 From heads to phrases

Phrases (XP) are constituents projected

round a head.
 From heads to phrases

Phrases (XP) are constituents projected

round a head.

The requirement that phrases be headed

= endocentricity
 From heads to phrases

Phrases (XP) are constituents projected round

a head.

The requirement that phrases be headed =

endocentricity

The head is the only obligatory element of a

phrase
 From heads to phrases

Phrases (XP) have the same pattern

irrespective of X: NP, VP, PP, AP
 What else is in a phrase?

Books of linguistics.
Cut the loaf of bread
Proud of my students
Said that he was happy
On the table
Blouse of silk
Insist on leaving
 What else is in a phrase?

whether the complement is obligatory or

not and which complement a particular
item can combine with is stated in the
lexicon, in the entry for that specific item
 What else is in a phrase?

The head merges with the complement

 What else is in a phrase?

The head merges with the complement

The result of merging the head X with its

complement is an X’
 What else is in a phrase?
books+ of linguistics  N0 + complement =
N’
 What else is in a phrase?
books+ of linguistics.
Cut the loaf of bread  V0 + complement =
V’
Proud of my students  A0 + complement
= A’
Said that he was happy  V0 +
complement = V’
On the table  P0 + complement = P’
Blouse of silk  N0 + complement = N’
 What else is in a phrase?
The complement itself is a phrase
 What else is in a phrase?
books of linguistics  N0 + PP = N’
Cut the loaf of bread  V0 + NP= V’
Proud of my students  A0 + PP = A’
Said that he was happy  V0 + CP = V’
On the table  P0 + NP = P’
Blouse of silk  N0 PP = N’
Insist on leaving  V0 + PP = V’
 What else is in a phrase?
Anything else?
 What else is in a phrase?
Anything else?

very tired
pink flowers
Difficult book of linguistics
very fast
 What else is in a phrase?

The X’ can then merge with a Specifier,

the result being a maximal projection XP:

Book of linguistics: V0^NP  V’

 What else is in a phrase?

The X’ can then merge with a Specifier,

the result being a maximal projection XP:

Book of linguistics: V0^NP  V’

Difficult book of linguistics: NP ^ V’  VP
 What else is in a phrase?

Specifiers are also phrases!

 Your turn

Very pleased about this

Extremely angry with him

Good book of linguistics

 What else is in a phrase?

XP = (YP) X (ZP)
Specifier head complement
 What else is in a phrase?

XP = (YP) X (ZP)
Specifier head complement

•Phrases are built round a head, they are

endocentric
 What else is in a phrase?

XP = (YP) X (ZP)
Specifier head complement

•Phrases are built round a head, they are

endocentric
•The head is the only obligatory element of a
phrase
 What else is in a phrase?

•a universal schema for phrase structure

 What else is in a phrase?

both the COMPLEMENT and the SPECIFIER

of a phrase are phrases, i.e. they have
their own head. But there is ONLY ONE
head in a phrase, i.e. the element that
gives the category to the (“big”) phrase.
 The structure of phrases

XP
2
YP X’
2
X0 ZP
 The structure of phrases

Good book of stories

 The structure of phrases

Extremely proud of his students

 The structure of phrases

Very tired
 The structure of phrases

Angry at John
 The structure of phrases

Angry
 The structure of phrases

Rather slowly
 The structure of phrases

Right under the desk

 Your turn 

Into the lake

Heart of gold
Children scream.
The children ate cookies
Happy campers
 What else is in a phrase?

Eat cookies at the party.

 What else is in a phrase?

read a book very fast.

 What else is in a phrase?

Buy an apartment in Bucharest.

 What else is in a phrase?

Buy an apartment in Bucharest.

 What else is in a phrase?

In a phrase, there can also be an optional

element  adjunct
 What else is in a phrase?

Adjuncts:
 What else is in a phrase?

Adjuncts:
- Are not mandatory: Eat cookies (at the
party); read a book (very fast); buy an
apartment (in Bucharest)
- Can be moved around (without a
change in meaning)
 What else is in a phrase?

But where do we place adjuncts?

 What else is in a phrase?

Eat cookies at the party.

 What else is in a phrase?

read a book very fast.

 What else is in a phrase?

Buy an apartment in Bucharest.

 Your turn 

Plant flowers in the garden

Bake a cake with your friend
 The head-directionality parameter

X-bar : a tool for exploring the differences

and similarities among languages
•languages A: head ^ complement
•languages B: complement ^ head
= languages choose from these two
universally available options  The head-
directionality parameter
 The head-directionality parameter

X-bar : a tool for exploring the differences

and similarities among languages
•languages A: head ^ complement 
English
•languages B: complement ^ head 
Japanese
= languages choose from these two
universally available options  The head-
 So far

•Phrases are endocentric constructions•

The head is the most important element in
a phrase
•Phrases have hierarchical organization
•X-bar format: a general format for
phrases
 So far

•The theory that deals with the structure

of phrases is X-bar theory
•X-bar theory expresses generalizations
about the phrase structure of all human
languages; it restricts the combinatorial
possibilities of words into larger linguistic
units
 The head-directionality parameter

X-bar : a tool for exploring the differences

and similarities among languages
•languages A: head ^ complement
•languages B: complement ^ head
= languages choose from these two
universally available options  The head-
directionality parameter
 LC vs. FC?

•So far, lexical projections: NP, AP, VP, PP

= lexical heads
What about functional categories?

•Functional categories also head their own

projection , in accordance with X-bar
theory
 Functional categories

Inflection
Determiners
Complementizers
 Functional categories

IP

Tense
Modals
auxiliaries
 Functional categories

My students can draw trees

 Functional categories

My students will draw trees

 Functional categories

My students drew trees.

 Functional categories

•Inflection links the main constituents of a

sentence: the subject and the predicate

•Inflection is the head of a sentence, i.e.clauses

are headed constituents
• *John go to the library.

 Sentences are IPs

 Thanks!

Does anyone have any questions?

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