PART

B
Linear Algebra.
Vector Calculus

Part B p1 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
 CHAPTER 9
Vector Differential Calculus.
Grad, Div, Curl

Chapter 9 p2 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
 9.1
9.1 Vectors
Vectors in
in 2-Space
2-Space and
and
3-Space
3-Space

Section 9.1 p3 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
 9.1 Vectors in 2-Space and 3-Space

InInengineering,
engineering,physics,
physics,mathematics,
mathematics,and andother
other
areas
areasweweencounter
encountertwotwokinds
kindsof ofquantities.
quantities.They
They
are
arescalars
scalarsand
andvectors.
vectors.
AAscalar
scalarisisaaquantity
quantitythat
thatisisdetermined
determinedby byits
its
magnitude.
magnitude.ItIttakes
takesononaanumerical
numericalvalue,
value,i.e.,
i.e.,aa
number.
number.Examples
Examplesof ofscalars
scalarsare
aretime,
time,temperature,
temperature,
length,
length,distance,
distance,speed,
speed,density,
density,energy,
energy,and
and
voltage.
voltage.
In contrast,aavector
Incontrast, vectorisisaaquantity
quantitythat
thathas
hasboth
both
magnitude
magnitudeand anddirection.
direction.We
Wecan cansay
saythat
thataavector
vector
anarrow
isisan arrowor oraadirected
directedline
linesegment.
segment.For For
example,
example,aavelocity
velocityvector
vectorhas
haslength
lengthorormagnitude,
magnitude,
which
whichisisspeed,
speed,and
anddirection,
direction,which
whichindicates
indicatesthethe
direction
directionofofmotion.
motion.
Section 9.1 p4 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig
Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
 9.1 Vectors in 2-Space and 3-Space

Typical
Typicalexamples
examplesofofvectors
vectorsare
aredisplacement,
displacement,
velocity,
velocity,and
andforce,
force,see
seeFig.
Fig.164
164as
asan
anillustration.
illustration.

Fig. 164. Force and velocity

Fig. 164. Force and velocity

More
Moreformally,
formally,we
wehave
havethe
thefollowing.
following.We Wedenote
denote
vectors
vectorsby
bylowercase
lowercaseboldface
boldface letters
letters a,
a, b,

b, v,
v,etc.
etc.In
In

handwriting a (in place of a), b, etc.
handwritingyou
youmay
mayuse
usearrows,
arrows,for forinstance,
instance,
Section 9.1 p5 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig
Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
 9.1 Vectors in 2-Space and 3-Space

AAvector
vector(arrow)
(arrow)hashasaatail,
tail,called itsinitial
calledits initialpoint,
point,
and
andaatip,
tip,called itsterminal
calledits terminalpoint.
point.This
Thisisis
motivated
motivatedin thetranslation
inthe translation(displacement
(displacementwithout
without
rotation)
rotation)ofofthe
thetriangle
trianglein inFig.
Fig.165,
165,where
wherethe the
initial
initialpoint
pointPPof
ofthe vectoraaisisthe
thevector theoriginal
originalposition
position
of
ofaapoint,
point,and
andthe
theterminal
terminalpoint
pointQQisisthe
theterminal
terminal
position
positionofofthat
thatpoint,
point,its
itsposition
positionafter
afterthethe
translation.
translation.The
Thelength
lengthof ofthe
thearrow
arrowequals
equalsthethe
distance
distancebetween
betweenPPand andQ. Q.This
Thisisiscalled
calledthethelength
length
(or
(ormagnitude)
magnitude)of ofthe vectoraaand
thevector andisisdenoted
denotedby by||
a|.
a|.Another
Anothername
namefor lengthisisnorm
forlength norm(or (orEuclidean
Euclidean
norm).
norm).
AAvector
vectorofoflength calledaaunit
length11isiscalled unitvector.
vector.

Section 9.1 p6 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
 9.1 Vectors in 2-Space and 3-Space

Fig. 165. Translation

Fig. 165. Translation

Section 9.1 p7 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
 9.1 Vectors in 2-Space and 3-Space

Definition
Equality
Equalityof
ofVectors
Vectors
Two vectorsaaand
Twovectors andbbare
areequal, writtenaa=
equal,written =b,b,ififthey
they
have
havethe
thesame
samelength
lengthand
andthe
thesame
samedirection
direction[as[as
explained
explainedininFig.
Fig.166;
166;in
inparticular,
particular,note
note(B)].
(B)].Hence
Henceaa
vector
vectorcan
canbebearbitrarily
arbitrarilytranslated;
translated;that
thatis,
is,its
itsinitial
initial
point
pointcan
canbebechosen
chosenarbitrarily.
arbitrarily.

Fig. 166. (A) Equal vectors. (B)–(D) Different vectors

Fig. 166. (A) Equal vectors. (B)–(D) Different vectors

Section 9.1 p8 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
 9.1 Vectors in 2-Space and 3-Space

Components of a Vector
We
Wechoose
choosean anxyz xyzCartesian
Cartesiancoordinate
coordinatesystem systeminin
space
space(Fig.
(Fig.167),
167),that thatis,
is,aausual
usualrectangular
rectangular
coordinate
coordinatesystem
systemwith withthe
thesame
samescale scaleof of
measurement
measurementon onthe thethree
threemutually
mutually
perpendicular
perpendicularcoordinate
coordinateaxes. axes.Let Letaabe beaagiven
given
vector
vectorwith
withinitial
initialpoint pointP:P:(x
(x11,,yy11,,zz11))and
andterminal
terminal
point
pointQ:
Q:(x
(x22,,yy22,,zz22).).Then
Thenthe
thethree
threecoordinate
coordinate
differences
differences
(1)
(1) aa1 == xx2 −−xx1,,aa2 = = yy2 − − yy1,,aa3 = = zz2 − − zz1
1 2 1 2 2 1 3 2 1
are
arecalled
calledthe thecomponents
componentsof ofthe vectoraawith
thevector with
respect
respectto tothat
thatcoordinate
coordinatesystem, system,and andwe wewritewrite
Section 9.1 a
simply p9 = [a1, a2, a3]. See Fig. 168.
simply a = [a , a , a ]. See
1 2
Advanced
3 Fig. 168.
Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig
Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
 9.1 Vectors in 2-Space and 3-Space

Components of a Vector (continued)

Thelength
The length|a| ofaacan
|a|of cannow
nowreadily
readilybe
beexpressed
expressedin
in
terms
termsof
ofcomponents
componentsbecause
becausefrom
from(1)
(1)and
andthe
the
Pythagorean
Pythagoreantheorem
theoremwe wehave
have
2 2 2
(2)
(2) a  a1
 a2
 a3
.
AACartesian
Cartesiancoordinate
coordinatesystem
systembeing
beinggiven,
given,the the
position
positionvector
vectorrrof ofaapoint
pointA: A:(x,
(x,y,
y,z)
z)isisthe
thevector
vector
with
withthe
theorigin
origin
(0,
(0,0,
0,0)
0)as
asthe
theinitial
initialpoint
pointand andAAas asthe
theterminal
terminal
point
point(see
(see
Fig.
Fig.169).
169).Thus
Thusin components,rr=
incomponents, =[x,
[x,y,
y,z].
z].This
This
can
canbebeseen
seendirectly
directlyfrom
from(1) (1)with
withxx1 = =yy1 = =zz1 ==0.
0.
1 1 1
Section 9.1 p10 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig
(See next slide for Figures 167, 1682011
Copyright and 169.)
by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
(See next slide for Figures 167, 168 and 169.)
 9.1 Vectors in 2-Space and 3-Space

Components of a Vector (continued)

Fig. 167. Cartesian Fig. 168. Components Fig. 169. Position vector r
Fig. 167. Cartesian Fig. 168. Components Fig. 169. Position vector r
coordinate system of a vector of a point A: (x, y, z)
coordinate system of a vector of a point A: (x, y, z)

Section 9.1 p11 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
 9.1 Vectors in 2-Space and 3-Space

Theorem 1
Vectors
Vectorsas asOrdered
OrderedTriples
Triplesof ofReal
RealNumbers
Numbers
AAfixed
fixedCartesian
Cartesiancoordinate
coordinatesystemsystembeingbeinggiven,given,
each
eachvector
vectorisisuniquely
uniquelydetermined
determinedby byits itsordered
ordered
triple
tripleof ofcorresponding
correspondingcomponents.
components.Conversely,
Conversely,to to
each
eachordered
orderedtriple
tripleof
ofreal
realnumbers
numbers(a (a11,,aa22,,aa33))
there
therecorresponds
correspondsprecisely
preciselyone vectoraa=
onevector =[a [a11,,aa22,,
aa3],],with
with(0,
(0,0,
0,0)
0)corresponding
corresponding to
to the
the zero
zero vector
vector
3
0,
0,which
whichhashaslength
length00and
andno nodirection.
direction.
Hence
Henceaavector equationaa=
vectorequation =bbisisequivalent
equivalentto to
the
thethree
threeequations
equationsaa11= =bb11,,aa22==bb22,,aa33= =bb33forforthe the
components.
components.
Section 9.1 p12 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig
Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
 9.1 Vectors in 2-Space and 3-Space

Vector Addition, Scalar Multiplication

Definition
Addition
Additionof ofVectors
Vectors
Thesum
The sumaa+ +bbof
oftwo vectorsaa=
twovectors =[a[a11,,
aa2,,aa3]]and
and bb= =[b1,,b
[b 2,,b
b 3]]is
b isobtained
obtained
2 3 1 2 3
by
byadding
addingthe thecorresponding
corresponding
components,
components,
(3)
(3) aa++bb=
=[a
[a11+
+bb11,,aa22+
+bb22,,aa33+
+
bb3].].
3
Geometrically,
Geometrically,place placethe
thevectors
vectorsas asin in Fig. 170. Vector
Fig. 170. Vector
Fig. 170 (the initial point
Fig. 170 (the initial point of b at theof b at the addition
addition
terminal
terminalpoint pointofofa); thenaa+
a);then +bbisisthe the
vector
Section 9.1drawn
vector drawn
p13 from
fromthe
theinitial
initial
Advanced point
point
Engineering of
of
Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig
aato
to the terminal point ofb.
the terminal point ofCopyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
b.
 9.1 Vectors in 2-Space and 3-Space

For
Forforces,
forces,this
thisaddition
additionisisthe
theparallelogram
parallelogramlaw
law
by
bywhich
whichwe
weobtain theresultant
obtainthe resultantof oftwo
twoforces
forcesin
in
mechanics.
mechanics.See
SeeFig.
Fig.171.
171.

Fig. 171. Resultant of two forces (parallelogram law)

Fig. 171. Resultant of two forces (parallelogram law)

Section 9.1 p14 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
 9.1 Vectors in 2-Space and 3-Space

Figure
Figure172
172(next slide) shows (for the plane) that the
(next slide) shows (for the plane) that the
“algebraic”
“algebraic”way
wayandandthethe“geometric
“geometricway”
way”of
ofvector
vector
addition
additiongive
givethe
thesame
samevector.
vector.
Basic
BasicProperties
Propertiesof ofVector
VectorAddition.
Addition. Familiar
Familiarlawslaws
for
forreal
realnumbers
numbersgivegiveimmediately
immediately
(a) a  b b  a (Commutativity)
(b) (u  v)  w u  (v  w) (Associativity)
(4)
(4) (c) a  0 0 a a
(d) a  ( a) 0.
Properties
Properties(a)(a)and
and(b)(b)are
areverified
verifiedgeometrically
geometricallyinin
Figs.
Figs.173
173andand174
174(next slide) . Furthermore, −a
(next slide) . Furthermore, −a
denotes
denotesthethevector
vectorhaving
havingthe thelength
length|a|
|a|and
andthe
the
direction
directionopposite
oppositeto
Section 9.1 p15 tothat
thatof ofa.
a.
Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig
Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
 9.1 Vectors in 2-Space and 3-Space

Fig. 172. Vector addition Fig. 173. Cummutativity Fig. 174. Associativity
Fig. 172. Vector addition Fig. 173. Cummutativity Fig. 174. Associativity
of vector addition of vector addition
of vector addition of vector addition

Section 9.1 p16 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
 9.1 Vectors in 2-Space and 3-Space

In
In(4b)
(4b)we
wemay
maysimply writeuu+
simplywrite +vv+ +w,w,and
andsimilarly
similarly
for
forsums
sumsofofmore
morethan
thanthree
threevectors.
vectors.Instead ofaa+
Insteadof +aa
we
wealso
alsowrite
write2a,
2a,and
andso
soon.
on.This
This(and
(andthe
thenotation
notation−a
−a
used
usedjust
justbefore)
before)motivates
motivatesdefining
definingthe
thesecond
second
algebraic
algebraicoperation
operationfor
forvectors
vectorsas
asfollows.
follows.

Section 9.1 p17 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
 9.1 Vectors in 2-Space and 3-Space

Definition
Scalar
ScalarMultiplication
Multiplication(Multiplication
(Multiplicationby
byaa
Number)
Number)
The
Theproduct
productca caof ofany vectoraa=
anyvector =[a [a11,,
aa2,,aa3]]and and any
any scalar
scalar cc(real
(real number
number
2 3
c)
c)isisthe thevector
vectorobtained
obtainedby by
multiplying
multiplyingeach eachcomponent
componentof ofaaby by
c,
c,
(5)
(5) ca
ca= =[ca
[ca11,,ca
ca22,,caca33]] Fig. 175. Scalar
Fig. 175. Scalar
Geometrically, if a ≠ 0, then ca
Geometrically, if a ≠ 0, then ca with multiplication with
multiplication
cc> >00has hasthe thedirection
directionof ofaaand andwith
[multiplication of
with vectors [multiplication of
by scalars
cc< 0 the direction opposite
< 0 the direction opposite to a. In to a. In vectors by scalars
(numbers)]
any case, the length of
any case, the length of ca is |ca| = |ca is |ca| = | (numbers)]
c||a|
c||a| and ca = 0 if
9.1 p18 ca = 0 if
Sectionand Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig
aa= =00or orcc= =00(or(orboth).
both).(See (SeeFig.
Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
Fig.
 9.1 Vectors in 2-Space and 3-Space

Basic
BasicProperties
Propertiesof ofScalar
ScalarMultiplication.
Multiplication. From
From
the
thedefinitions
definitionsweweobtain
obtaindirectly
directly
(a) c(a  b) ca  cb
(b) (c  k)a ca  ka
(6)
(6) (c) c(ka) (ck)a (written cka)
(d) 1a a.

Section 9.1 p19 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
 9.1 Vectors in 2-Space and 3-Space

You
Youmay
mayprove
provethat
that(4)
(4)and
and(6)
(6)imply
implyfor
forany vectoraa
anyvector
(a) 0a 0
(7)
(7) (b) ( 1)a  a
Instead ofbb+
Insteadof +(−a)
(−a)we
wesimply writebb−
simplywrite −aa(Fig.
(Fig.176).
176).

Fig. 176. Difference of vectors

Fig. 176. Difference of vectors
Section 9.1 p20 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig
Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
 9.1 Vectors in 2-Space and 3-Space

Unit
UnitVectors
Vectorsi,i,j,j,k. Besidesaa=
k.Besides =[a
[a11,,aa22,,aa33]]another
another
popular
popularway
wayof
ofwriting
writingvectors
vectorsisis
(8)
(8) aa=
=aa11ii++aa22jj++aa33k.
k.
In
Inthis representation,i,i,j,j,kkare
thisrepresentation, arethe
theunit
unitvectors
vectorsin
in
the
thepositive
positivedirections
directionsof ofthe
theaxes
axesof
ofaaCartesian
Cartesian
coordinate
coordinatesystem
system(Fig.
(Fig.177).
177).Hence,
Hence,inincomponents,
components,
(9)
(9) ii=
=[1,
[1,0,
0,0],
0], jj=
=[0,
[0,1,
1,0],
0], kk=
=[0,
[0,0,
0,
1]
1]
and
andthe
theright
rightside
sideof
of(8)
(8)isisaasum
sumof
ofthree
threevectors
vectors
parallel
parallelto
tothe
thethree
threeaxes.
axes.

Section 9.1 p21 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
 9.1 Vectors in 2-Space and 3-Space

Fig. 177. The unit vectors i, j, k and the representation (8)

Fig. 177. The unit vectors i, j, k and the representation (8)
All
Allthe vectorsaa=
thevectors =[a
[a11,,aa22,,aa33]]= =aa11ii+ +aa22jj+ +aa33kk(with (with
real
realnumbers
numbers as
ascomponents)
components) form
form the
the real
real vector
vector
space
spaceRR3with
3
withthe
thetwo
twoalgebraic
algebraicoperations operationsof ofvector
vector
addition and scalar multiplication
addition and scalar multiplication as just defined. R3 as just defined. R 3

hasdimension
has dimension3. 3.The
Thetriple
tripleof of vectors
vectors i,i,j,j,kkisis
called standard basis
called a standard basis of R3..Given
a of R 3
GivenaaCartesian Cartesian
coordinate
coordinatesystem, system,thetherepresentation
representation(8) (8)of ofaagivengiven
vector
Section 9.1is
vector p22unique.
is unique. Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig
Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
 9.2
9.2 Inner
Inner Product
Product (Dot
(Dot Product)
Product)

Section 9.2 p23 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
 9.2 Inner Product (Dot Product)

Orthogonality
The
Theinner
innerproduct
productor ordot
dotproduct
productcancanbe
bemotivated
motivated
by
bycalculating
calculatingwork
workdone
doneby byaaconstant
constantforce,
force,
determining
determiningcomponents
componentsof offorces,
forces,ororother
other
applications.
applications.ItItinvolves
involvesthethelength
lengthofofvectors
vectorsand
and
the
theangle
anglebetween
betweenthem.
them.TheTheinner
innerproduct
productisisaa
kind
kindof
ofmultiplication
multiplicationof oftwo
twovectors,
vectors,defined
definedinin
such
suchaaway
waythat
thatthetheoutcome
outcomeisisaascalar.
scalar.Indeed,
Indeed,
another
anotherterm
termforforinner
innerproduct
productisisscalar
scalarproduct,
product,aa
term
termwe
weshall
shallnot
notuse
usehere.
here.The
Thedefinition
definitionof
ofthe
the
inner
innerproduct
productisisasasfollows.
follows.

Section 9.2 p24 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
 9.2 Inner Product (Dot Product)
Definition
Inner
InnerProduct
Product(Dot
(DotProduct)
Product)of
ofVectors
Vectors
Theinner
The innerproduct
productorordot
dotproduct
productaa••bb(read
(read“a“a
dotb”)
dot b”)of
oftwo vectorsaaand
twovectors andbbisisthe
theproduct
productof
oftheir
their
lengths
lengthstimes
timesthe
thecosine
cosineof
oftheir
theirangle
angle(see
(seeFig.
Fig.
178),
178), a  b  a b cos if a 0, b 0
a  b 0 if a 0, b 0.
(1)
(1)
The
Theangle
angleγ,
γ,00≤ ≤γγ≤ ≤π, betweenaaand
π,between andbbisis
measured
measuredwhen whenthe theinitial
initialpoints
pointsof
ofthe
thevectors
vectors
coincide,
coincide,as asininFig.
Fig.178.
178.In components,aa=
Incomponents, =[a
[a11,,aa22,,
aa3],],bb=
=[b
[b1,,bb2,,bb3],],and
and
3 1 2 3

(2)
(2) aa••bb=
=aa11bb1Advanced
++ aa2bb2 + + aa3bb3..
Section 9.2 p25 1 Engineering
2 2 Mathematics,
3 3 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig
Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
 9.2 Inner Product (Dot Product)

The
Thesecond
secondline
linein
in(1)
(1)isisneeded
neededbecause
becauseγγisis
undefined whenaa=
undefinedwhen =00or orbb==0.
0.

Fig. 178. Angle between vectors and value of inner product

Fig. 178. Angle between vectors and value of inner product

Section 9.2 p26 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
 9.2 Inner Product (Dot Product)

Orthogonality.
Orthogonality.
Since
Sincethethecosine
cosineinin(1)
(1)may
maybe bepositive,
positive,0, 0,or
or
negative,
negative,so somay
maybebethe
theinner
innerproduct
product(Fig. (Fig.178,
178,
previous slide). The case that the inner product is zero
previous slide). The case that the inner product is zero
isisof
ofparticular
particularpractical
practicalinterest
interestandandsuggests
suggeststhethe
following
followingconcept.
concept.
vectoraaisiscalled
AAvector calledorthogonal
orthogonalto vectorbbififaa••
toaavector
bb= =0. Thenbbisisalso
0.Then alsoorthogonal
orthogonalto toa,
a,and
andwe callaa
wecall
andbborthogonal
and orthogonalvectors.
vectors.Clearly,
Clearly,thisthishappens
happens
for
fornonzero
nonzerovectors
vectorsififand
andonly
onlyififcos
cosγγ= =0;0;thus
thusγγ==
π/2
π/2(90°).
(90°).This
Thisproves
provesthe theimportant
importantfollowing
following
theorem.
theorem.

Section 9.2 p27 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
 9.2 Inner Product (Dot Product)

Theorem 1
Orthogonality
OrthogonalityCriterion
Criterion
The
Theinner
innerproduct
productofoftwo
twononzero
nonzerovectors
vectorsisis00ififand
and
only
onlyififthese
thesevectors
vectorsare
areperpendicular.
perpendicular.

Section 9.2 p28 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
 9.2 Inner Product (Dot Product)

Length
LengthandandAngle.
Angle.
Equation with b = a gives a • b
Equation (1) with b = a gives a • b = |a|2..Hence
(1) = |a|2
Hence
(3)
(3) a  aa
From
From(3)
(3)and
and(1)
(1)we
weobtain
obtainfor
forthe
theangle
anglebetween
between
two
twononzero
nonzerovectors
vectors
ab ab
(4) cos   .
(4) ab aa bb

Section 9.2 p29 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
 9.2 Inner Product (Dot Product)

From
Fromthe thedefinition
definitionwe weseeseethat
thatthe
theinner
innerproduct
product
has
hasthethefollowing
followingproperties.
properties.For Forany vectorsa,
anyvectors a,b,b,cc
and
andscalars
scalars
qq1,(a)
,qq2,(,q1a  q1b)  c q1a  c q2b  c (Linearity)
1 2
(b) a  b b  a (Symmetry)

(5)
(5) a  a 0 
(c)  (Positive definiteness).
a  a 0 if and only if a 0

Section 9.2 p30 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
 9.2 Inner Product (Dot Product)

Hence
Hencedotdotmultiplication
multiplicationisiscommutative
commutativeas asshown
shown
by
by(5b).
(5b).Furthermore,
Furthermore,ititisisdistributive
distributivewith
withrespect
respect
to
tovector
vectoraddition.
addition.This
Thisfollows
followsfrom
from(5a)
(5a)with
withqq11=
=11
and
andqq2 =
=1:1:
2

(5a*)
(5a*) (a+
(a +b)
b)••cc=
=aa••cc+
+bb••cc
(Distributivity).
(Distributivity).
Furthermore,
Furthermore,fromfrom(1)
(1)and
and|cos
|cosγ|
γ|≤
≤11we
wesee
seethat
that
(6)
(6) |a••b|
|a b|≤
≤|a||b|
|a||b| (Cauchy–Schwarz
(Cauchy–Schwarz
inequality).
inequality).

Section 9.2 p31 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
 9.2 Inner Product (Dot Product)

Using
Usingthis
thisandand(3),
(3),you
youmay
mayprove
prove(see
(seeProb.
Prob.16)
16)
(7)
(7) |a
|a++b|b|≤ |a|+
≤|a| +|b|
|b| (Triangle
(Triangle
inequality).
inequality).
Geometrically,
Geometrically,(7)
(7)with
with<<says
saysthat
thatone
oneside
sideofofaatriangle
trianglemust
mustbe
be
shorter
shorterthan
thanthe
theother
othertwo
twosides
sidestogether;
together;this
thismotivates
motivatesthethename
name
of
of(7).
(7).
AAsimple
simpledirect
directcalculation
calculationwithwithinner
innerproducts
products
shows
showsthatthat
(8) + b|2
2+ |a − b| 2= 2(|a| 2 + |b| 2
(8) |a + b| + |a − b| = 2(|a| + |b| ))
|a 2 2 2

(Parallelogram
(Parallelogramequality).
equality).

Section 9.2 p32 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
 9.2 Inner Product (Dot Product)

Applications of Inner Products

EXAMPLE 2
Work Done by a Force Expressed as an Inner Product

This
Thisisisaamajor
majorapplication.
application.ItItconcerns
concernsaabody
bodyonon
which
whichaaconstant forceppacts.
constantforce acts.(For
(Foraavariable
variable
force,
force,see
seeSec.
Sec.10.1.)
10.1.)Let
Letthe
thebody
bodybe
begiven
givenaa
displacementd.
displacement d.Then
Thenthe
thework
workdone
donebybyppininthe
the
displacement
displacementisisdefined
definedasas
(9)
(9) WW==|p||d|
|p||d|cos
cosαα= =pp••d,
d,
that
thatis,
is,magnitude
magnitude|p|of
|p|ofthe
theforce
forcetimes
timeslength
length|d|
|d|
of
ofthe
thedisplacement
displacementtimes
timesthe
thecosine
cosineof
ofthe
theangle
angle
betweenppand
ααbetween anddd(Fig.
(Fig.179).
179).

Section 9.2 p33 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
 9.2 Inner Product (Dot Product)

EXAMPLE 2 (continued)
Work Done by a Force Expressed as an Inner Product

(continued) If α < 90°, as in Fig. 179, then W > 0. If

(continued) If α < 90°, as in Fig. 179, then W > 0. If
ppand
andddareareorthogonal,
orthogonal,then
thenthe
thework
workisiszero
zero
(why?).
(why?).IfIfαα>>90°,
90°,then
thenW
W< <0,0,which
whichmeans
meansthatthat
in
inthe
thedisplacement
displacementoneonehas
hasto
todo
dowork
workagainst
against
the
theforce.
force.For
Forexample,
example,think
thinkofofswimming
swimmingacross
across
aariver
riverat
atsome
someangle
angleααagainst
againstthe
thecurrent.
current.

Fig. 179. Work done by a force

Fig. 179. Work done by a force
Section 9.2 p34 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig
Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
 9.2 Inner Product (Dot Product)
EXAMPLE 3
Component of a Force in a Given Direction
What
Whatforce
forcein
inthe
therope
ropein
inFig.
Fig.180
180will
willhold
holdaacar
car
of
of5000
5000lb
lbin
inequilibrium
equilibriumififthe
theramp
rampmakes
makesan an
angle
angleof
of25°
25°with
withthe
thehorizontal?
horizontal?

Fig. 180. Example 3

Fig. 180. Example 3

Solution.
Solution.Introducing
Introducingcoordinates
coordinatesas asshown,
shown,the
the
weightisisaa=
weight =[0,
[0,−5000]
−5000]because
becausethis
thisforce
forcepoints
points
downward,
downward,in inthe
thenegative
negativey-direction.
y-direction.
Section 9.2 p35 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig
Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
 9.2 Inner Product (Dot Product)

EXAMPLE 3 (continued)
Component of a Force in a Given Direction
Solution.
Solution.(continued 1)
(continued 1)
We
Wehave
haveto representaaas
torepresent asaasum
sum(resultant)
(resultant)ofoftwo
two
forces,aa=
forces, =cc++p, whereccisisthe
p,where theforce
forcethe
thecar
car
exerts
exertsononthe
theramp,
ramp,which
whichisisof
ofno
nointerest
interestto
tous,
us,
andppisisparallel
and parallelto
tothe
therope.
rope.AAvector
vectorininthe
the
direction
directionofofthe
therope
ropeisis(see
(seeFig.
Fig.180)
180)
bb=
=[−1,
[−1,tan
tan25°]
25°]=
=[−1,
[−1,0.46631],
0.46631],thus
thus|b|
|b|
=
=1.10338,
1.10338,
The
Thedirection
directionofof1the
theunit vectoruuisisopposite
unitvector oppositeto
to
the u  the b [0.90631,  0.42262].
thedirection
directionof
ofbtherope
ropesosothat
that

Section 9.2 p36 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
 9.2 Inner Product (Dot Product)

EXAMPLE 3 (continued)
Component of a Force in a Given Direction
Solution.
Solution.(continued 2)
(continued 2)
Since
Since|u||u|==11and
andcoscosγγ> >0,0,we
wesee
seethat
thatwe
wecan
can
write
writeourourresult
resultasas
a  b 50000.46631
p ( a cos) u a  u   2113  lb .
b 1.10338

We
Wecan
canalso
alsonote
notethat
thatγγ=
=90°
90°− −25°
25°=
=65°
65°isisthe
the
angle betweenaaand
anglebetween andppsosothat
that
p  a cos 5000cos65 2113  lb .

Answer:
Answer:About
About2100
2100lb.
lb.
Section 9.2 p37 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig
Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
 9.2 Inner Product (Dot Product)

Example
Example33isistypical
typicalof
ofapplications
applicationsthat
thatdeal
dealwith
withthe
the
component
componentor orprojection
projectionof vectoraain
ofaavector inthe
the
direction
directionof vectorb(≠
ofaavector b(≠0).
0).IfIfwe
wedenote
denoteby byppthe
the
length
lengthofofthe
theorthogonal
orthogonalprojection
projectionof ofaaon
onaastraight
straight
line
linellparallel tobbas
parallelto asshown
shownininFig.
Fig.181,
181,then
then
(10)
(10) pp==|a|cos
|a|cosγ.γ.
Here
Hereppisistaken
takenwith
withthe
theplus
plussign
signififpb
pbhas
hasthe
the
direction
directionofofbband
andwith
withthe
theminus
minussign
signififpb
pbhas
hasthe
the
direction
directionopposite tob.
oppositeto b.

Fig. 181. Component of a vector a in theMathematics,

direction10/e of bya Edwin
vector b
Fig. 181. Component of aAdvanced
Section 9.2 p38 vector a in the
Engineering direction of a vector b
Kreyszig
Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
 9.2 Inner Product (Dot Product)

Multiplying
Multiplying(10)
(10)by
by|b|/|b|
|b|/|b|=
=1,
1,we haveaa••bbin
wehave inthe
the
numerator
numeratorand
andthus
thus
ab
(11) p
(11) b
(b ≠0).
(b≠ 0).
IfIfbbisisaaunit
unitvector,
vector,as
asititisisoften
oftenused
usedfor
forfixing
fixingaa
direction,
direction,thenthen(11)
(11)simply
simplygivesgives
(12)
(12) =aa••bb
pp= (|b|
(|b|=
=1).
1).

Section 9.2 p39 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
 9.2 Inner Product (Dot Product)

Figure
Figure182
182shows
showsthetheprojection ofaain
projectionppof inthe
the
direction ofbb(as
directionof (asin
inFig.
Fig.181)
181)and
andthe
theprojection
projectionqq=
=||
b|cos ofbbin
b|cosγγof inthe
thedirection ofa.
directionof a.

Fig. 182. Projections p of a on b and q of b on a

Fig. 182. Projections p of a on b and q of b on a

Section 9.2 p40 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
 9.2 Inner Product (Dot Product)

EXAMPLE 4 Orthonormal Basis

ByBydefinition,
definition,an anorthonormal
orthonormalbasis basisfor for3-space
3-spaceisisaa
basis
basis
{a,b,
{a, b,c} c}consisting
consistingof oforthogonal
orthogonalunit unitvectors.
vectors.ItIt
has
hasthe thegreatgreatadvantage
advantagethat thatthe thedetermination
determinationof of
the
thecoefficients
coefficientsin representationsvv=
inrepresentations =l1l1aa+ +l2l2bb+ +
l3l ccof of aagiven
given vector
vector vvisisvery
very simple.
simple. We
We claim
claim
3
that
thatl1l1= =aa••v,v,l2l2==bb••v, v,l3l3= =cc••v. v.Indeed,
Indeed,this this
follows
followssimply simplyby bytaking
takingthe theinner innerproducts
productsof ofthe the
representation
representationwith witha, a,b,b,c, c,respectively,
respectively,and and
using
usingthe theorthonormality
orthonormalityof ofthe thebasis,
basis,
aa••vv= =l1l1aa••aa+ +l2l2aa••bb+ +l3l3aa••cc= =l1l1,,etc.etc.
For
Forexample,
example,the theunit vectorsi,i,j,j,kkin
unitvectors in(8),
(8),Sec. Sec.
9.1,
9.1,associated
associatedwith withaaCartesian
Cartesiancoordinate coordinatesystem system
form Section an
form anorthonormal
9.2 p41
orthonormalbasis, basis, called
called
Advanced Engineering the
the standard
Mathematics,
standard
10/e by Edwin Kreyszig
Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
basis with respect to the given coordinate system.
 9.3
9.3 Vector
Vector Product
Product
(Cross
(Cross Product)
Product)

Section 9.3 p42 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
 9.3 Vector Product (Cross Product)

Definition
Vector
VectorProduct
Product(Cross
(CrossProduct,
Product,Outer
OuterProduct)
Product)
of
ofVectors
Vectors
Thevector
The vectorproduct
productor orcross
crossproduct
productaa× ×bb(read
(read
“a crossb”)
“across b”)ofoftwo vectorsaaand
twovectors andbbisisthe vectorvv
thevector
denoted
denotedby
by
vv==aa××bb
I.I.IfIfaa=
=00or
orbb=
=0,0,then
thenwe definevv=
wedefine =aa×
×bb=
=0.
0.
II.
II.IfIfboth
bothvectors
vectorsare
arenonzero
nonzerovectors,
vectors,then vectorvv
thenvector
has
hasthe thelength
length
(1)
(1) |v|
|v|= |a×
=|a ×b|
b|=
=|a||b|sin
|a||b|sinγ,
γ,
where
whereγγisisthe
theangle
Section 9.3 p43
betweenaaand
anglebetween andbbas asin
inSec.
Sec.9.2.
9.2.
Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig
Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
 9.3 Vector Product (Cross Product)

Definition (continued)
Vector
VectorProduct
Product(Cross
(CrossProduct,
Product,Outer
OuterProduct)
Product)
of
ofVectors
Vectors(continued 1)
(continued 1)
Furthermore,
Furthermore,by design,aaand
bydesign, andbbform
formthe
thesides
sidesofofaa
parallelogram
parallelogramon onaaplane
planein
inspace.
space.The
The
parallelogram
parallelogramisisshaded
shadedininblue
blueininFig.
Fig.185.
185.The
The
area
areaof
ofthis
thisblue
blueparallelogram
parallelogramisisprecisely
preciselygiven
givenbyby
Eq.
Eq.(1),
(1),so
sothat
thatthe
thelength
length|v|
|v|of
ofthe vectorvvisisequal
thevector equal
to
tothe
thearea
areaofofthat
thatparallelogram.
parallelogram.
III.IfIfaaand
III. andbblie
liein
inthe
thesame
samestraight
straightline, i.e.,aaand
line,i.e., and
bbhave
havethethesame
sameor oropposite
oppositedirections,
directions,then
thenγγisis0°
0°
or
or180°
180°so sothat
thatsin
sinγγ==0.
0.In
Inthat
thatcase
case|v|
|v|=
=00so sothat
that
vv==aa× ×bb==0.0.
Section 9.3 p44 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig
Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
 9.3 Vector Product (Cross Product)

Definition (continued)
Vector
VectorProduct
Product(Cross
(CrossProduct,
Product,Outer
OuterProduct)
Product)
of
ofVectors
Vectors(continued 2)
(continued 2)
IV.
IV.IfIfcases
casesIIand
andIII
IIIdo
donot
notoccur, thenvvisisaa
occur,then
nonzero
nonzerovector.
vector.The
Thedirection ofvv=
directionof =aa××bbisis
perpendicular
perpendicularto bothaaand
toboth andbbsuch thata,
suchthat a,b,b,v—
v—
precisely
preciselyin inthis
thisorder
order(!)—form
(!)—formaaright-handed
right-handed
triple
tripleasasshown
shownin inFigs.
Figs.185–187
185–187and
andexplained
explained
below.
below.
Another
Anotherterm
termfor
forvector
vectorproduct
productisisouter
outerproduct.
product.

Section 9.3 p45 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
 9.3 Vector Product (Cross Product)

Remark.
Remark.Note Notethat thatIIand
andIII IIIcompletely
completely
characterize
characterizethe theexceptional
exceptionalcase casewhen whenthe
thecross
cross
product
productisisequal equalto tothe
thezero
zerovector,
vector,and andIIIIand
andIV IV
the
theregular
regularcase casewhere
wherethe thecross
crossproductproductisis
perpendicular
perpendicularto totwo
twovectors.
vectors.
Just
Justasaswe wedid didwith
withthe
thedot
dotproduct,
product,we wewould
wouldalso also
like
liketotoexpress
expressthe thecross
crossproduct
productin incomponents.
components.Let Let
aa= =[a andbb=
[a11,,aa22,,aa33]]and =[b Thenvv=
[b11,,bb22,,bb33].].Then =[v[v11,,vv22,,
vv3]]=
3 =aa× ×bbhas hasthe thecomponents
components
(2)
(2) vv11= =aa22bb33−
−aa33bb22,, vv22= =aa33bb11− −aa11bb33,, vv3 =
3 =
aa1bb2 − − aa2bb1..
1 2 2 1
Here
Herethe theCartesian
Cartesiancoordinate
coordinatesystem systemisisright- right-
handed,
handed,as asexplained
explainedbelow below(see (seealso alsoFig. Fig.188). 188).(For (For
aaleft-handed system, each
Advancedcomponent 10/e v
Engineering Mathematics,of must be
left-handed system, each component of v must
by Edwin
be
Kreyszig

multiplied
multipliedby
Section 9.3 p46
by−1.−1.Derivation
Derivationof of(2)(2)in inApp.
App.4.)
Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
4.)
 9.3 Vector Product (Cross Product)

Right-Handed
Right-HandedTriple. Triple.
AAtriple
tripleof vectorsa,
ofvectors a,b,
b,vvisisright-handed
right-handedififthe the
vectors
vectorsininthe
thegiven
givenorder
orderassume
assumethe thesame
samesort
sortofof
orientation
orientationas asthe
thethumb,
thumb,indexindexfinger,
finger,andandmiddle
middle
finger
fingerofofthe
theright
righthand
handwhen
whenthese
theseare areheld
heldasasin
in
Fig.
Fig.186.
186.WeWemay
mayalso
alsosay thatififaaisisrotated
saythat rotatedinto
into
the
thedirection
directionof ofbbthrough
throughthe theangle
angleγ(< γ(<π), thenvv
π),then
advances
advancesin inthe
thesame
samedirection
directionas asaaright-handed
right-handed
screw
screwwould
wouldififturned
turnedin inthe
thesame
sameway way(Fig.
(Fig.187).
187).

Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

Section 9.3 p47 Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
 9.3 Vector Product (Cross Product)

Right-Handed
Right-HandedTriple.
Triple.(continued)
(continued)

Fig. 185. Vector product Fig. 186. Right-handed Fig. 187. Right-handed
Fig. 185. Vector product Fig. 186. Right-handed Fig. 187. Right-handed
triple of vectors a, b, v screw
triple of vectors a, b, v screw
Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig
Section 9.3 p48 Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
 9.3 Vector Product (Cross Product)

Right-Handed
Right-HandedCartesian
CartesianCoordinate
CoordinateSystem.System.
The
Thesystem calledright-handed
systemisiscalled right-handedififthe the
corresponding
correspondingunit vectorsi,i,j,j,kkin
unitvectors inthe
thepositive
positive
directions
directionsofofthe
theaxes
axes(see
(seeSec.
Sec.9.1) 9.1)form
formaaright-
right-
handed
handedtriple
tripleas
asin
inFig.
Fig.188a.
188a.The Thesystem
systemisiscalled
called
left-handed
left-handedififthe
thesense ofkkisisreversed,
senseof reversed,asasin
inFig.
Fig.
188b.
188b.InInapplications,
applications,weweprefer
preferright-handed
right-handed
systems.
systems.

Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

Section 9.3 p49 Fig.
188. The two types ofCopyright
Cartesian2011 bycoordinate systems
John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
Fig. 188. The two types of Cartesian coordinate systems
 9.3 Vector Product (Cross Product)

How
Howto toMemorize
Memorize(2). (2).
IfIfyou
youknow
knowsecond-
second-and andthird-order
third-orderdeterminants,
determinants,
you
yousee seethat
that(2) (2)can canbe bewritten
written
a2 a3 a1 a3 a3 a1 a1 a2
(2*) v  , v2   , v3 
(2*) 1 b b b1 b3 b3 b1 b1 b2
2 3

andvv=
and =[v[v11,,vv22,,vv33]]==vv11ii+
+vv22jj+
+vv33kkisisthe
the
expansion
expansionof ofthethefollowing
followingsymbolic
symbolicdeterminant
determinantby by
its
itsfirst
firstrow.
row.(We (Wecall callthe
thedeterminant
determinant“symbolic”
“symbolic”
because
becausethe thefirst
firstrow rowconsists
consistsofofvectors
vectorsrather
ratherthan
than
of i j k
ofnumbers.)
numbers.) a2 a3 a1 a3 a1 a2
v a×b  a1 a2 a3  i j k.
b2 b3 b1 b3 b1 b2
(2**)
(2**) b1 b2 b3

For
Foraaleft-handed
left-handedsystem
system the
the determinant
determinant has
has aa
Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig
minus sign in
minus sign in front.
Section 9.3 p50 front. Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
 9.3 Vector Product (Cross Product)

EXAMPLE 2
Vector Products of the Standard Basis Vectors

i ×j  k, j ×k  i, k×i  j
(3)
(3) j×i  k, k×j  i, i ×k  j.

Section 9.3 p51 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
 9.3 Vector Product (Cross Product)

Theorem 1
General
GeneralProperties
Propertiesof
ofVector
VectorProducts
Products
(a)
(a)For
Forevery
everyscalar
scalarl,l,
(4) (la)×
(4) (la) ×bb= l(a×
=l(a ×b)
b)= =aa××(lb).
(lb).
(b)
(b)Cross
Crossmultiplication
multiplicationisisdistributive
distributivewith
with
respect
respecttotovector
vectoraddition;
addition;that
thatis,is,
( ) a×(b  c) (a×b)  (a×c),
(5)
(5) ( ) (a  b) ×c (a×c)  (b×c).
(c)
(c)Cross multiplicationisisnot
Crossmultiplication notcommutative
commutativebut
but
anticommutative;
anticommutative;thatthatis,
is,
(6)
(6) bb×
×aa= −(a×
=−(a ×b)
b) (Fig.
(Fig.189).
189).
Section 9.3 p52 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig
Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
 9.3 Vector Product (Cross Product)

Theorem 1 (continued)
General
GeneralProperties
Propertiesof
ofVector
VectorProducts
Products(continued)
(continued)
(d)
(d)Cross multiplicationisisnot
Crossmultiplication notassociative;
associative;that thatis,
is,in
in
general,
general,
(7)
(7) aa× (b×
×(b ×c)
c)≠ (a×
≠(a ×b)
b)××cc
so
sothat
thatthe
theparentheses
parenthesescannot
cannotbe
beomitted.
omitted.

Fig. 189. Anticommutativity of cross multiplication

Section 9.3 p53 Fig. 189. Anticommutativity of Mathematics,
Advanced Engineering cross multiplication
10/e by Edwin Kreyszig
Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
 9.3 Vector Product (Cross Product)

EXAMPLE 3 Moment of a Force

In
Inmechanics
mechanicsthe themoment
momentm mof forceppabout
ofaaforce aboutaa
point
pointQQisisdefined
definedasasthe
theproduct
productm m= =|p|d,
|p|d,where
where
ddisisthe
the(perpendicular)
(perpendicular)distance
distancebetween
betweenQQand and
the
theline
lineofofaction ofpp(Fig.
actionLLof 190).IfIfrrisisthe
(Fig.190). the
vector
vectorfrom
fromQQto toany
anypoint
pointAAon
onL,L,then
thendd= =|r|
|r|sin
sin
γ,
γ,asasshown
shownin inFig.
Fig.190,
190,and
and
m
m= =|r||p|
|r||p|sin
sinγ.
γ.
Since
Sinceγγisisthe
theangle betweenrrand
anglebetween andp,
p,we
wesee
seefrom
from
(1)
(1)that
thatmm= =|r |r××p|.
p|.

Section 9.3 p54 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
 9.3 Vector Product (Cross Product)

EXAMPLE 3 (continued) Moment of a Force

The
Thevector
vector
(8)
(8) m
m= =rr× ×pp
isiscalled themoment
calledthe momentvector
vectoror orvector
vectormoment
moment
ofofppabout
aboutQ. Q.Its
Itsmagnitude
magnitudeisism. m.IfIfm
m≠ ≠0,
0,its
its
direction
directionisisthat
thatof
ofthe
theaxis
axisof
ofthe
therotation
rotationabout
aboutQQ
thatpphas
that hasthe
thetendency
tendencytotoproduce.
produce.ThisThisaxis
axisisis
perpendicular
perpendicularto bothrrand
toboth andp.p.

Section 9.3 p55 Fig. 190. Moment of a force p

Fig. 190. Advanced
Moment Engineering
of a Mathematics,
force p 10/e
Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons.
by Edwin Kreyszig
All rights reserved.
 9.3 Vector Product (Cross Product)

EXAMPLE 5 Velocity of a Rotating Body

AArotation
rotationofofaarigid
rigidbody
bodyBBin inspace
spacecan canbebe
simply
simplyandanduniquely
uniquelydescribed
describedby vectorw
byaavector was as
follows.
follows.The
Thedirection
directionof ofwwisisthat
thatofofthe
theaxis
axisofof
rotation
rotationandandsuch
suchthat
thatthe
therotation
rotationappears
appears
clockwise
clockwiseififoneonelooks
looksfrom
fromthetheinitial
initialpoint
pointofofw wto
to
its
itsterminal
terminalpoint.
point.The
Thelength
lengthof ofwwisisequal
equaltotothe
the
angular
angularspeedspeedω(>0)
ω(>0)of ofthe
therotation,
rotation,thatthatis,
is,the
the
linear
linear(or
(ortangential)
tangential)speed
speedof ofaapoint
pointof ofBBdivided
divided
by
byits
itsdistance
distancefrom
fromthe
theaxis
axisof
ofrotation.
rotation.
Let
LetPPbebeanyanypoint
pointofofBBandandddits
itsdistance
distancefromfrom
the
theaxis.
axis.Then
ThenPPhas hasthe
thespeed
speedωd.ωd.LetLetrrbebethe
the
position
positionvector
vectorof ofPPreferred
referredto toaacoordinate
coordinate
system
systemwith
withorigin
origin00ononthe
theaxis
axisofofrotation.
rotation.
Section 9.3 p56 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig
Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
 9.3 Vector Product (Cross Product)

EXAMPLE 5 (continued)
Velocity of a Rotating Body
(continued 1)
(continued 1)
Then
Thendd= =|r|
|r|sin
sinγ,γ,where
whereγγisisthe
theangle betweenw
anglebetween w
andr.
and r.Therefore,
Therefore,
ωd
ωd= =|w||r|
|w||r|sin
sinγγ==|w|w× ×r|.
r|.
From
Fromthis
thisand
andthethedefinition
definitionofofvector
vectorproduct
productwe
we
see
seethat
thatthe
thevelocity vectorvvof
velocityvector ofPPcan
canbebe
represented
representedin inthe
theform
form(Fig.
(Fig.192)
192)
(9)
(9) vv= =ww× ×r.
r.
This
Thissimple
simpleformula
formulaisisuseful
usefulfor determiningvvat
fordetermining at
any
anypoint
pointof
ofB.B.

Section 9.3 p57 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
 9.3 Vector Product (Cross Product)

EXAMPLE 5 (continued)
Velocity of a Rotating Body
(continued 2)
(continued 2)

Fig. 192. Rotation of a rigid body

Fig. 192. Rotation of a rigid body
Section 9.3 p58 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig
Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
 9.3 Vector Product (Cross Product)

Scalar Triple Product

Certain
Certainproducts
productsof ofvectors,
vectors,having
havingthree
threeor
ormore
more
factors,
factors,occur
occurin
inapplications.
applications.The
Themost
mostimportant
important
of
ofthese
theseproducts
productsisisthe
thescalar
scalartriple
tripleproduct
productor
or
mixed
mixedproduct
productofofthree vectorsa,
threevectors a,b,
b,c.
c.
(10*)
(10*) (a bb c)
(a c)= =aa••(b (b× ×c).c).
The
Thescalar
scalartriple
tripleproduct
productisisindeed
indeedaascalar scalarsince since
(10*)
(10*)involves
involvesaadot dotproduct,
product,which
whichin inturn
turnisisaa
scalar.
scalar.We
Wewantwantto toexpress
expressthethescalar
scalartripletriple
product
productin incomponents
componentsand andas asaathird
thirdorder order
determinant.
determinant.To Tothis
thisend, letaa=
end,let =[a [a11,,aa22,,aa33],],
bb==[b andcc=
[b1,,bb2,,bb3],],and =[c
[c1,,cc2,,cc3].].
1 2 3 1 2 3

Section 9.3 p59 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
 9.3 Vector Product (Cross Product)

Scalar Triple Product (continued 1)

Also
Alsoset (b×
set(b ×c)c)==vv==[v[v11,,vv22,,vv33].].Then
Thenfrom
fromthethe
dot
dotproduct
productin incomponents
components[formula
[formula(2) (2)in
inSec.
Sec.
9.2]
9.2]and
andfrom
from(2*) withbband
(2*)with andccinstead insteadofofaaand
andbb
we
wefirst
firstobtain
obtain
aa••(b
(b×
×c)
c)==b2aa•b
•v3v==aa1v
bv31 +
+b1aa2vv2 +b+
1
aa3bv2v3
a1  a2 1 1 2a32 3 .3
c2 c3 c3 c1 c1 c2

Section 9.3 p60 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
 9.3 Vector Product (Cross Product)

Scalar Triple Product (continued 2)

The
Thesum
sumononthe
theright
rightisisthe
theexpansion
expansionof ofaathird-
third-
order
orderdeterminant
determinantbybyitsitsfirst
firstrow.
row.Thus
Thusweweobtain
obtain
the
thedesired
desiredformula
formulaforforthe
thescalar
scalartriple
tripleproduct,
product,
that
thatis,
is, a1 a2 a3
a b c a  (b×c)  b1 b2 b3 .
(10)
(10) c1 c2 c3

The
Themost
mostimportant
importantproperties
propertiesof
ofthe
thescalar
scalartriple
triple
product
productare
areas
asfollows.
follows.

Section 9.3 p61 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
 9.3 Vector Product (Cross Product)

Theorem 2
Properties
Propertiesand
andApplications
Applicationsof
ofScalar
ScalarTriple
TripleProducts
Products
(a)
(a)In
In(10)
(10)the
thedot
dotand
andcross
crosscan
canbe
beinterchanged:
interchanged:
(11)
(11) (a bb c)
(a =aa••(b
c)= (b××c)
c)=
=(a(a××b)
b)••c.
c.
(b)
(b)Geometric
Geometricinterpretation.
interpretation.The Theabsolute
absolutevalue
value||
(a bb c)|
(a c)|of
of(10)
(10)isisthe
thevolume
volumeofofthe
theparallelepiped
parallelepiped
(oblique
(obliquebox) witha,
box)with a,b,
b,ccas
asedge
edgevectors
vectors(Fig.
(Fig.193).
193).
(c) Linear independence.
(c) Linear independence. Three vectors in R3are
Three vectors in R 3
are
linearly
linearlyindependent
independentififand
andonly
onlyififtheir
theirscalar
scalartriple
triple
product
productisisnot
notzero.
zero.

Section 9.3 p62 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
 9.3 Vector Product (Cross Product)

PROOF
PROOF
(a)
(a)Dot
Dotmultiplication
multiplicationisiscommutative,
commutative,so
sothat
thatby
by(10)
(10)
c1 c2 c3
(ab)  c c  (ab)  a1 a2 a3 .
b1 b2 b3

From
Fromthis
thiswe
weobtain
obtainthe
thedeterminant
determinantin in(10)
(10)byby
interchanging
interchangingRows
Rows11and
and22and
andininthe
theresult
resultRows
Rows22
and
and3.3.But
Butthis
thisdoes
doesnot
notchange
changethe
thevalue
valueofofthe
the
determinant
determinantbecause
becauseeach
eachinterchange
interchangeproduces
producesaa
factor
factor−1,
−1,and
and(−1)(−1)
(−1)(−1)= =1.
1.This
Thisproves
proves(11).
(11).

Section 9.3 p63 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
 9.3 Vector Product (Cross Product)

(b)
(b)The
Thevolume
volumeof ofthat
thatbox
boxequals
equalsthe
theheight
heighthh= =|a||
|a||
cos
cosγ|
γ|
(Fig.
(Fig.193)
193)times
timesthe
thearea
areaof
ofthe
thebase,
base,which
whichisisthe
the
area |b×
area|b ×c|
c|ofofthe
theparallelogram
parallelogramwith sidesbband
withsides andc.
c.
Hence
Hencethe
thevolume
volumeisis
|a||b
|a||b×
×c||cos
c||cosγ|
γ|=
=|a (b×
|a••(b ×c)|
c)| (Fig.
(Fig.
193)
193)
as
asgiven
givenby
bythe
theabsolute
absolutevalue
valueof
of(11).
(11).

Section 9.3 p64 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
Fig. 193. Geometric interpretation of a scalar triple product
Fig. 193. Geometric interpretation of a scalar triple product
 9.3 Vector Product (Cross Product)

(c)
(c)Three
Threenonzero
nonzerovectors,
vectors,whose
whoseinitial
initialpoints
points
coincide,
coincide,are arelinearly
linearlyindependent
independentififandandonly
onlyififthe
the
vectors
vectorsdo donotnotlie
liein
inthe
thesame
sameplane
planenor
norlie
lieon
onthe
the
same
samestraight
straightline.
line.
This
Thishappens
happensififandandonly
onlyififthe
thetriple
tripleproduct
productin in
(b)
(b)isisnot
notzero,
zero,sosothat
thatthe
theindependence
independencecriterion
criterion
follows.
follows.(The
(Thecase
caseof ofone
oneofofthe
thevectors
vectorsbeing
beingthe
thezero
zero
vector
vectorisistrivial.)
trivial.)

Section 9.3 p65 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
 9.4
9.4 Vector
Vector and
and Scalar
Scalar Functions
Functions
and
and Their
Their Fields.
Fields.
Vector
Vector Calculus:
Calculus: Derivatives
Derivatives

Section 9.4 p66 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
 9.4 Vector and Scalar Functions and Their Fields.
Vector Calculus: Derivatives

Our
Ourdiscussion
discussionof
ofvector
vectorcalculus
calculusbegins
beginswith
with
identifying
identifyingthe
thetwo
twotypes
typesofoffunctions
functionsononwhich
whichitit
operates.
operates.Let
LetPPbe
beany
anypoint
pointininaadomain
domainofof
definition.
definition.Typical
Typicaldomains
domainsin inapplications
applicationsare
are
three-dimensional,
three-dimensional,or oraasurface
surfaceor oraacurve
curvein
in
space.
space.Then
Thenwe defineaavector
wedefine vectorfunction
functionv,v,whose
whose
values
valuesare
arevectors,
vectors,that
thatis,
is,
vv==v(P)
v(P)==[v
[v11(P),
(P),vv22(P),
(P),vv33(P)]
(P)]
that
thatdepends
dependson onpoints
pointsPPin inspace.
space.We Wesay saythat
thataa
vector
vectorfunction definesaavector
functiondefines vectorfieldfieldin inaadomain
domain
of
ofdefinition.
definition.Typical
Typicaldomains
domainswere werejustjust
mentioned.
mentioned.

Section 9.4 p67 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
 9.4 Vector and Scalar Functions and Their Fields.
Vector Calculus: Derivatives

Examples
Examplesof ofvector
vectorfields
fieldsare
arethe
thefield
fieldof
oftangent
tangent
vectors
vectorsof
ofaacurve
curve(shown
(shownin inFig.
Fig.195),
195),normal
normal
vectors
vectorsof
ofaasurface
surface(Fig.
(Fig.196),
196),and
andvelocity
velocityfield
fieldof
ofaa
rotating
rotatingbody
body(Fig.
(Fig.197).
197).Note
Notethat
thatvector
vectorfunctions
functions
may
mayalso
alsodepend
dependonontime
timettororon
onsome
someother
other
parameters.
parameters.

Fig. 195. Field of tangent Fig. 196. Field of normal Fig. 197. Velocity field
Fig. 195. Field of tangent Fig. 196. Field of normal Fig. 197. Velocity field
vectors of a curve vectors of a surface of a rotating body
vectors of a curve vectors of a surface of a rotating body
Section 9.4 p68 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig
Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
 9.4 Vector and Scalar Functions and Their Fields.
Vector Calculus: Derivatives

Similarly,
Similarly,we defineaascalar
wedefine scalarfunction
functionf,f,whose
whose
values
valuesare
arescalars,
scalars,that
thatis,
is,
ff==f(P)
f(P)
that
thatdepends
dependson onP. P.We
Wesay saythat
thataascalar
scalarfunction
function
defines
definesaascalar
scalarfield
fieldininthat
thatthree-dimensional
three-dimensional
domain
domainor orsurface
surfaceor orcurve
curvein inspace.
space.Two
Two
representative
representativeexamples
examplesof ofscalar
scalarfields
fieldsare
arethe
the
temperature
temperaturefield
fieldof ofaabody
bodyandandthe
thepressure
pressurefield
field
of
ofthe
theair
airin
inEarth’s
Earth’satmosphere.
atmosphere.Note Notethat
thatscalar
scalar
functions
functionsmay
mayalsoalsodepend
dependon onsome
someparameter
parameter
such
suchasastime
timet.t.

Section 9.4 p69 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
 9.4 Vector and Scalar Functions and Their Fields.
Vector Calculus: Derivatives

EXAMPLE 1
Scalar Function (Euclidean Distance in Space)
The
Thedistance
distancef(P) f(P)ofofany
anypoint
pointPPfrom
fromaafixed
fixedpoint
point
PP0 in
in space
space isisaascalar
scalar function
function whose
whose domain
domain of
of
0
definition
definitionisisthe thewhole
wholespace.
space.f(P)
f(P)defines
definesaascalar
scalar
field
fieldin inspace.
space.IfIfwe weintroduce
introduceaaCartesian
Cartesian
coordinate
coordinatesystem systemand andPP00has
hasthe
thecoordinates
coordinatesxx00,,
yy0,,zz0,,then
then ffisisgiven
given by
by the
the well-known
well-known formula
formula
0 0
f (P)  f (x, y, z)  (x  x0 )  (y  y0 )  (z  z0 )2
2 2

where
wherex,
x,y,
y,zzare
arethe
thecoordinates
coordinatesof
ofP.
P.

Section 9.4 p70 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
 9.4 Vector and Scalar Functions and Their Fields.
Vector Calculus: Derivatives

EXAMPLE 1 (continued)
Scalar Function (Euclidean Distance in Space)
IfIfwe
wereplace
replacethe
thegiven
givenCartesian
Cartesiancoordinate
coordinate
system
systemwithwithanother
anothersuch
suchsystem
systemby bytranslating
translating
and
androtating
rotatingthe
thegiven
givensystem,
system,then
thenthe
thevalues
valuesofof
the
thecoordinates
coordinatesof ofPPand
andPP00will
williningeneral
generalchange,
change,
but
butf(P)
f(P)will
willhave
havethe
thesame
samevalue
valueas asbefore.
before.Hence
Hence
f(P)
f(P)isisaascalar
scalarfunction.
function.The
Thedirection
directioncosines
cosinesofof
the
thestraight
straightline
linethrough
throughPPand
andPP00are
arenot
notscalars
scalars
because
becausetheir
theirvalues
valuesdepend
dependononthethechoice
choiceofofthe
the
coordinate
coordinatesystem.
system.

Section 9.4 p71 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
 9.4 Vector and Scalar Functions and Their Fields.
Vector Calculus: Derivatives

Vector Calculus
Convergence.
Convergence.
An
Aninfinite
infinitesequence
sequenceof vectorsaa(n)(n),,nn=
ofvectors =1,1,2,
2,……,,isis
said toconverge
saidto convergeififthere vectoraasuch
thereisisaavector suchthat
that
(4) lim a(n)  a 0.
(4) n 

aaisiscalled thelimit
calledthe limitvector
vectorofofthat
thatsequence,
sequence,and
and
we
wewrite
write lim a(n) a.
n 
(5)
(5)

Section 9.4 p72 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
 9.4 Vector and Scalar Functions and Their Fields.
Vector Calculus: Derivatives

Vector Calculus
Convergence.
Convergence.(continued (continued 1)
1)
IfIfthe
thevectors
vectorsare aregiven
givenin inCartesian
Cartesiancoordinates,
coordinates,
then
thenthisthissequence
sequenceof ofvectors
vectorsconverges
convergesto toaaifif
and
andonlyonlyififthe
thethree
threesequences
sequencesof ofcomponents
componentsof of
the
thevectors
vectorsconverge
convergeto tothe
the
corresponding
correspondingcomponents
componentsof ofa.
a.
Similarly,
Similarly,aavector functionv(t)
vectorfunction v(t)of
ofaareal
realvariable
variable
ttisissaid
saidtotohave
havethe thelimit
limitllas asttapproaches
approachestt00,,ifif
v(t)
v(t)isisdefined
definedin insome
someneighborhood
neighborhoodof oftt00(possibly
(possibly
except at t ) and lim v(t)  l 0.
except at t ) and
0
0
t t
0

(6)
(6)
Section 9.4 p73 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig
Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
 9.4 Vector and Scalar Functions and Their Fields.
Vector Calculus: Derivatives

Vector Calculus
Convergence.
Convergence.(continued 2)
(continued 2)

Then
Thenwe
wewrite
write
(7)
(7) lim v(t) l.
t t0

Here,
Here,aaneighborhood
neighborhoodof oftt00isisan
aninterval
interval(segment)
(segment)
on
onthe
the
t-axis
t-axiscontaining
containingtt00as
asan
aninterior
interiorpoint
point(not
(notas
asan
an
endpoint).
endpoint).

Section 9.4 p74 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
 9.4 Vector and Scalar Functions and Their Fields.
Vector Calculus: Derivatives

Continuity.
Continuity.AAvector functionv(t)
vectorfunction v(t)isissaid
saidto
tobe
be
continuous
continuousatattt=
=tt00ififititisisdefined
definedin insome
some
neighborhood
neighborhoodof
oftt0 (including
(includingat attt0 itself!)
itself!)and
and
0 0

(8) lim v(t) v(t0 ).

(8) t t0

IfIfwe
weintroduce
introduceaaCartesian
Cartesiancoordinate
coordinatesystem,
system,wewe
may
maywrite
write
v(t)  v1(t), v2(t), v3(t) v1(t)i  v2(t)j  v3(t)k.

Thenv(t)
Then v(t)isiscontinuous
continuousatattt00ififand
andonly
onlyififits
itsthree
three
components
componentsare arecontinuous
continuousat attt0.. 0

Section 9.4 p75 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
 9.4 Vector and Scalar Functions and Their Fields.
Vector Calculus: Derivatives
Definition
Derivative
Derivativeof
ofaaVector
VectorFunction
Function
AAvector functionv(t)
vectorfunction v(t)isissaid
saidto bedifferentiable
tobe differentiableat
at
aapoint
pointttififthe
thefollowing
followinglimit
limitexists:
exists:
(9) v(t  t)  v(t)
(9) v(t) lim .
t 0 t
This vectorv’(t)
Thisvector v’(t)isiscalled
calledthe thederivative ofv(t).
derivativeof v(t).See
See
Fig.
Fig.199.
199.

Fig. 199. Derivative of a vector function

Fig. 199. Derivative of a vector function
Section 9.4 p76 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig
Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
 9.4 Vector and Scalar Functions and Their Fields.
Vector Calculus: Derivatives

In
Incomponents
componentswith
withrespect
respectto
toaagiven
givenCartesian
Cartesian
coordinate
coordinatesystem,
system,
(10) v(t)  v1(t), v2(t), v3(t) .
(10)
Hence
Hencethethederivative
derivativev’(t)
v’(t)is
isobtained
obtainedby
by
differentiating
differentiatingeach
eachcomponent
componentseparately.
separately.
For instance, if v
For instance, if v = [t, t2,,0],
= [t, t2
thenv’
0],then v’=
=[1,
[1,2t,
2t,0].
0].

Section 9.4 p77 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
 9.4 Vector and Scalar Functions and Their Fields.
Vector Calculus: Derivatives

Equation
Equation(10)
(10)follows
followsfromfrom(9)(9)and
andconversely
conversely
because
because(9)
(9)isisaa“vector
“vectorform”
form”ofofthetheusual
usualformula
formula
of
ofcalculus
calculusbybywhich
whichthe thederivative
derivativeof ofaafunction
functionof ofaa
single
singlevariable
variableisisdefined.
defined.[The
[Thecurve
curvein inFig.
Fig.199
199isis
the
thelocus
locusof
ofthe
theterminal
terminalpoints representingv(t)
pointsrepresenting v(t)for
for
values
valuesof
ofthe
theindependent
independentvariable
variablein insome
someinterval
interval
containing
containingttandandtt+ +Δt
Δtin in(9)].
(9)].ItItfollows
followsthat
thatthe
the
familiar
familiardifferentiation
differentiationrules rulescontinue
continueto tohold
holdfor
for
differentiating
differentiatingvector
vector functions, for forinstance
(cv) functions,
cv instance
(u  v) u  v (c
(c
constant),
constant),

Section 9.4 p78 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
 9.4 Vector and Scalar Functions and Their Fields.
Vector Calculus: Derivatives

and
andin
inparticular
particular
(11) (u  v) u  v  u  v
(11)
(12)
(12) (u ×v) u ×v  u ×v

(13)    
(13) (u v w) (u v w)  (u v w)  (u v w ).

Section 9.4 p79 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
 9.4 Vector and Scalar Functions and Their Fields.
Vector Calculus: Derivatives

Partial Derivatives of a Vector Function

Suppose
Supposethat
thatthethecomponents
componentsof ofaavector
vectorfunction
function
v  v1 , v2 , v3  v1i  v2j  v3k
are
aredifferentiable
differentiablefunctions
functionsof ofnnvariables
variablestt11,,……,,ttnn..
Then
Thenthe thepartial
partialderivative
derivativeof ofvvwith
withrespect
respectto to
ttm isisdenoted
denoted by
by∂v/∂tm and
∂v/∂t and isisdefined
defined as
asthe
the vector
vector
m
function v v m
v  v
function  1 i  2 j  3 k.
tm tm tm tm

2 2 2 2

Similarly, v 
second v 
partial v  v3 are and so on.
derivatives

Similarly, second 1
i
partial 2
j k. are and so on.
derivatives
tltm tltm tltm tltm

Section 9.4 p80 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
 9.5
9.5 Curves.
Curves. Arc
Arc Length.
Length.
Curvature.
Curvature. Torsion
Torsion

Section 9.5 p81 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
 9.5 Curves. Arc Length. Curvature. Torsion

The
Theapplication
applicationof
ofvector
vectorcalculus
calculustotogeometry
geometryisisaa
field
fieldknown
knownasasdifferential
differentialgeometry.
geometry.
Bodies
Bodiesthat
thatmove
movein inspace
spaceform
formpaths
pathsthat
thatmay
maybe
be
represented
representedby bycurves
curvesC.C.This
Thisand
andother
other
applications
applicationsshow
showthe
theneed forparametric
needfor parametric
representations
representationsof withparameter
ofCCwith parametert,t,which
which
may
maydenote
denotetime
timeor
orsomething
somethingelse
else(see
(seeFig.
Fig.200).
200).

Section 9.5 p82 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
 9.5 Curves. Arc Length. Curvature. Torsion

AAtypical
typicalparametric
parametricrepresentation
representationisisgiven
givenbyby
(1)
(1) r(t)
r(t)=
=[x(t),
[x(t), y(t),
y(t), z(t)]
z(t)]=
=x(t)i
x(t)i+
+y(t)j
y(t)j+
+z(t)k.
z(t)k.

Fig. 200. Parametric representation of a curve

Fig. 200. Parametric representation of a curve
Here
Herettisisthe
theparameter
parameterand andx,x,y,
y,zzare
areCartesian
Cartesian
coordinates,
coordinates,that
thatis,
is,the
theusual
usualrectangular
rectangular
coordinates
coordinatesas asshown
shownin inSec.
Sec.9.1.
9.1.
Section 9.5 p83 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig
Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
 9.5 Curves. Arc Length. Curvature. Torsion

To
Toeach
eachvalue valuett= =tt00,,there
therecorresponds
correspondsaapoint
pointof
ofCC
with
withposition
positionvector vectorr(t r(t00))whose
whosecoordinates
coordinatesare
are
x(t
x(t00),),y(t
y(t00),),z(t
z(t00).).This
Thisisisillustrated
illustratedin
inFigs.
Figs.201
201and
and
202.
202.

Fig. 201. Circle in Example 1 Fig. 202. Ellipse in Example 2

Fig. 201. Circle in Example 1 Fig. 202. Ellipse in Example 2

Section 9.5 p84 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
 9.5 Curves. Arc Length. Curvature. Torsion

The
Theuse
useofofparametric
parametricrepresentations
representationshas haskey
key
advantages
advantagesover
overother
otherrepresentations
representationsthat
thatinvolve
involve
projections
projectionsinto
intothe
thexy-plane
xy-planeand
andxz-plane
xz-planeororinvolve
involve
aapair
pairof
ofequations
equationswith
withyyor
orwith
withzzasasindependent
independent
variable.
variable.The
Theprojections
projectionslook
looklike
likethis:
this:
(2)
(2) yy==f(x),
f(x), zz= =g(x).
g(x).
The
Theadvantages
advantagesof ofusing
using(1)(1)instead
insteadof of(2) (2)are arethat,
that,
in
in(1),
(1),the thecoordinates
coordinatesx, x,y, y,zzall allplayplayan anequal equalrole,role,
that
thatis, is,all
allthree
threecoordinates
coordinatesare aredependent
dependent
variables.
variables.Moreover,Moreover,thetheparametric
parametricrepresentation
representation
(1)
(1)induces
inducesan anorientation
orientationon onC. C.ThisThismeans
meansthat thatas as
we
weincrease
increaset,t,we wetravel
travelalong
alongthe thecurve
curveCCin inaa
certain
certaindirection.
direction.TheThesense
senseof ofincreasing
increasingttisiscalled called
the
thepositive
positivesensesenseon onC.
C.The
Thesense senseof ofdecreasing
decreasingttisis
then
Sectioncalled
then calledthe
9.5 p85
thenegative
negative sense
sense
Advanced on C,
C,given
onMathematics,
Engineering
given 10/e byby
Edwin(1).
by Kreyszig
(1).
Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
 9.5 Curves. Arc Length. Curvature. Torsion

EXAMPLE 3 Straight Line

AAstraight
straightline
lineLLthrough
throughaapoint
pointAAwith
withposition
position
vectoraain
vector inthe
thedirection
directionof
ofaaconstant vectorbb
constantvector
(see
(seeFig.
Fig.203)
203)
can
canbe
berepresented
representedparametrically
parametricallyininthe
theform
form
(4)
(4) r(t) =aa+
r(t)= +tb
tb=
=[a
[a11+
+tb
tb11,,aa22+
+tb
tb22,,aa33+
+tb
tb33].].

Fig.
Section 9.5 p86203.
Parametric representation of a straight
Advanced Engineering line10/e
Mathematics, by Edwin Kreyszig
Fig. 203. Parametric representation
Copyright 2011 by John Wiley &line
of a straight Sons. All rights reserved.
 9.5 Curves. Arc Length. Curvature. Torsion

AAplane
planecurve
curveisisaacurve
curvethatthatlies
liesin
inaaplane
planeinin
space.
space.AAcurve
curvethat
thatisisnot
notplane calledaatwisted
planeisiscalled twisted
curve.
curve.
AAsimple
simplecurve
curveisisaacurve withoutmultiple
curvewithout multiple
points,
points,that
thatis,
is,without
withoutpoints
pointsat
atwhich
whichthe
thecurve
curve
intersects
intersectsor
ortouches
touchesitself.
itself.Circle
Circleand
andhelix
helixare
are
simple
simplecurves.
curves.Figure
Figure206 206shows
showscurves
curvesthat
thatare
are
not
notsimple.
simple.
Anarc
An arcofofaacurve
curveisisthe
theportion
portionbetween
betweenanyanytwo
two
points
pointsof
ofthe
thecurve.
curve.For
Forsimplicity,
simplicity,wewesay
say“curve”
“curve”
for
forcurves
curvesasaswell
wellas
asforforarcs.
arcs.

Section 9.5 p87 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

Fig. 206. Curves with multiple
Copyright points
2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
Fig. 206. Curves with multiple points
 9.5 Curves. Arc Length. Curvature. Torsion

Tangent to a Curve
The
Thenext
nextidea
ideaisisthetheapproximation
approximationof ofaacurve
curveby by
straight
straightlines,
lines,leading
leadingto totangents
tangentsand andtotoaa
definition
definitionof oflength.
length.Tangents
Tangentsare arestraight
straightlines
lines
touching
touchingaacurve.
curve.The Thetangent
tangentto toaasimple
simplecurve
curve
CCatataapoint
pointPPof ofCCisisthe thelimiting
limitingposition
positionof ofaa
straight
straightline
lineLLthrough
throughPPand andaapointpointQQof ofCCasasQQ
approaches
approachesPPalong alongC. C.See
SeeFig.Fig.207.207.
Let
Letususformalize
formalizethis thisconcept.
concept.IfIfCCisisgivengivenby by
r(t),
r(t),and
andPPandandQQcorrespond
correspondto tottand
andtt+ +Δt,
Δt,then
then
aavector
vectorin inthe
the1direction
directionof ofLLisis
 r(t  t)  r(t) .
(6) t
(6)

Section 9.5 p88 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
 9.5 Curves. Arc Length. Curvature. Torsion
Tangent to a Curve (continued)
In
Inthe
thelimit
limitthis
thisvector
vectorbecomes
becomesthe thederivative
derivative
1
(7) r(t)  lim  r(t  t)  r(t) ,
(7) t 0 t

providedr(t)
provided r(t)isisdifferentiable,
differentiable,as
asweweshall
shallassume
assume
from
fromnow on.IfIfr′(t)
nowon. r′(t)≠≠00we callr′(t)
wecall r′(t)aatangent
tangent
vector
vectorof
ofCCatatPPbecause
becauseitithas
hasthe
thedirection
directionofofthe
the
tangent.
tangent.The
Thecorresponding
correspondingunit unitvector theunit
vectorisisthe unit
tangent
tangentvector
vector(see(see Fig.
Fig.207)
207)
1
(8) u  r.
(8) r
Note
Notethat bothr′r′and
thatboth anduupoint
pointin inthethedirection
directionof of
increasing
increasingt.t.Hence Hencetheirtheirsense
sensedepends dependson onthe the
orientation
orientationof ofC.
C.ItItisisreversed
reversedififwe wereverse
reversethe the
orientation.
Section 9.5 p89
orientation. Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig
Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
 9.5 Curves. Arc Length. Curvature. Torsion

Tangent to a Curve (continued)

ItItisisnow
noweasy
easyto
tosee
seethat thetangent
thatthe tangentto
toCCat
atPPisis
given
givenby by
(9)
(9) q(w)
q(w)==rr+
+wr'
wr' (Fig.
(Fig.
208).
208).
This
Thisisisthe
thesum
sumof ofthe
theposition vectorrrof
positionvector ofPPand
andaa
multiple
multipleof ofthe
thetangent vectorr′r′of
tangentvector ofCCat
atP.P.Both
Both
vectors
vectorsdepend
dependon onP.P.The
Thevariable
variablew wisisthe
the
parameter
parameterin in(9).
(9).

Section 9.5 p90 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
 9.5 Curves. Arc Length. Curvature. Torsion

Length of a Curve
IfIfr(t)
r(t)has
hasaacontinuous derivativer′,
continuousderivative r′,ititcan
canbe be
shown
shownthat thatthe
thesequence
sequencel1l1,,l2l2,,…
…has
hasaalimit,limit,
which
whichisisindependent
independentof ofthetheparticular
particularchoice choiceof of
the
therepresentation
representationof ofCCandandofofthe
thechoice
choiceof of
subdivisions.
subdivisions.This
b
Thislimit
limitisisgiven
givenby bythe
theintegral
integral
dr 
l  r  r dt
  
 r  dt  .
(10) a  
(10)
llisiscalled thelength
calledthe lengthof
ofC,
C,and
andCCisiscalled
called
rectifiable.
rectifiable.

Section 9.5 p91 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
 9.5 Curves. Arc Length. Curvature. Torsion

Arc Length s of a Curve

The
Thelength
length(10)
(10)ofofaacurve
curveCCisisaaconstant,
constant,aa
positive
positivenumber.
number.But Butififwe
wereplace
replacethe
thefixed
fixedbbin in
(10)
(10)with
withaavariable
variablet,t,the
theintegral
integralbecomes
becomesaa
function
functionof
oft,t,denoted
denotedby bys(t)
s(t)and
andcalled
calledthe thearcarc
length
lengthfunction
functionor orsimply
simplythethearc
arclength
lengthof ofC.C.
Thus
Thus t
 dr 
s(t)  r  rdt  r  .
 
dt 
(11)
(11) a
t
Here
Herethe
thevariable
variableof ofintegration
integrationisisdenoted
denotedby by
because
becausettisisnow
nowused
usedin inthe
theupper
upperlimit.
limit.

Section 9.5 p92 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
 9.5 Curves. Arc Length. Curvature. Torsion

Arc Length s of a Curve

Linear
LinearElement
Elementds.
ds.
ItItisiscustomary
customaryto
towrite
write
(13*)
(13*) dr
dr=
=[dx,
[dx,dy,
dy,dz]
dz]= dxii+
=dx dyjj+
+dy dzkk
+dz
and
and
(13)
(13) ds 2
2= dr • dr = dx 2+ dy 2+ dz 2
ds = dr • dr = dx + dy + dz ..
2 2 2

ds
dsisiscalled thelinear
calledthe linearelement
elementof ofC.
C.

Section 9.5 p93 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
 9.5 Curves. Arc Length. Curvature. Torsion

Arc Length s of a Curve (continued)

Arc
ArcLength
Lengthas asParameter.
Parameter.
The
Theuse
useofofssin
in(1)
(1)instead
insteadof
ofan
anarbitrary
arbitrarytt
simplifies
simplifiesvarious
variousformulas.
formulas.For
Forthe
theunit
unittangent
tangent
vector
vector(8)
(8)we
wesimply
simplyobtain
obtain
(14)
(14) u(s) =r′(s).
u(s)= r′(s).
Indeed,
Indeed,|r′(s)|
|r′(s)|=
=(ds/ds)
(ds/ds)= =11in
in(12)
(12)shows thatr′(s)
showsthat r′(s)
isisaaunit
unitvector.
vector.

Section 9.5 p94 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
 9.5 Curves. Arc Length. Curvature. Torsion

Curves in Mechanics. Velocity. Acceleration

Curves
Curvesplay
playaabasic
basicrole
roleininmechanics,
mechanics,where wherethey
they
may
mayserve
serveas aspaths
pathsof ofmoving
movingbodies.
bodies.Then Thensuch
suchaa
curve
curveCCshould
shouldbe berepresented
representedby byaaparametric
parametric
representationr(t)
representation withtime
r(t)with timettas asparameter.
parameter.The The
tangent
tangentvector
vector(7)(7)of
ofCCisisthen
thencalled
calledthethevelocity
velocity
vector
vectorvvbecause,
because,being
beingtangent,
tangent,ititpoints
pointsin inthe
the
instantaneous v  r motion
 r  r ds /its
dt;
instantaneousdirection
directionof of motionand and itslength
length
gives thespeed
givesthe speed
see
see(12).
(12).The
Thesecond
secondderivative
derivativeof ofr(t)
r(t)isiscalled
calledthe
the
acceleration
accelerationvector
vectorandandisisdenoted
denotedby bya. a.Its
Its
length
length|a|
|a|isiscalled theacceleration
calledthe accelerationof ofthethe
motion.
motion.Thus
Thus
(16)
(16) v(t) =r′(t),
v(t)= r′(t), a(t) =v′(t)
a(t)= =r"(t).
v′(t)= r"(t).
Section 9.5 p95 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig
Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
 9.5 Curves. Arc Length. Curvature. Torsion

Tangential
Tangentialand
andNormal
NormalAcceleration.
Acceleration.
Whereas
Whereasthe
thevelocity
velocityvector
vectorisisalways
alwaystangent
tangenttoto
the
thepath
pathof
ofmotion,
motion,thetheacceleration
accelerationvector
vectorwill
will
generally
generallyhave
haveanother
anotherdirection.
direction.WeWecan
cansplit
splitthe
the
acceleration
accelerationvector
vectorinto
intotwo
twodirectional
directional
components,
components,that
thatis,
is,
(17)
(17) aa=
=aatan ++ aanorm,,
tan norm
where thetangential
wherethe tangentialacceleration
accelerationvector vectoraatan
tan
isis
tangent
tangentto
tothe
thepath
path(or, sometimes,0)
(or,sometimes, 0)and
andthe
the
normal
normalacceleration
accelerationvectorvectoraanorm isisnormal
normal
norm
(perpendicular)
(perpendicular)totothe
thepath
path(or, sometimes,0).
(or,sometimes, 0).

Section 9.5 p96 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
 9.5 Curves. Arc Length. Curvature. Torsion

Now
Nowthethelength
length|a |atan ||isisthe
theabsolute
absolute value
value of
of the
the
tan
projection
projectionof ofaaininthe
thedirection
directionof ofv, v,given
givenby by(11)
(11)
in
inSec.
Sec.9.2
9.2withwithbb= =v; v;that
thatis,
is,|a
|atan ||== |a
|a ··v|/
v|/|v|.
|v|.
tan
Henceaatan
Hence
tan
isisthis
this expression
expression times
times the
the unit
unit vector
vector
(1/|v|)v
(1/|v|)vin
inthethedirection
directionof ofv,
v,that
thatis,is,
av
(18*) atan
 v. Also, anorm a  atan .
(18*) v v

Section 9.5 p97 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
 9.5 Curves. Arc Length. Curvature. Torsion

EXAMPLE 7 Centripetal Acceleration. Centrifugal Force

The
Thevector
vectorfunction
function
r(t)
r(t)==[R
[Rcos
cosωt,
ωt,RRsin
sinωt]
ωt]==RRcos ωtii+
cosωt +RRsin
sinωt
ωt
jj (Fig.
(Fig.
210)
210)
(with fixediiand
(withfixed andj)j)represents
representsaacircle
circleCCof
ofradius
radiusRR
with
withcenter
centeratatthe
theorigin
originof
ofthe
thexy-plane
xy-planeand
and
describes
describesthe
themotion
motionof ofaasmall
smallbody
bodyBB
counterclockwise
counterclockwisearound
aroundthethecircle.
circle.Differentiation
Differentiation
gives
givesthe
thevelocity
velocityvector
vector
vv=
=r′r′=
=[−Rω
[−Rωsin
sinωt,
ωt,Rω
Rωcos
cosωt]
ωt]==−Rω
−Rωsin ωtii
sinωt
+
+Rω
Rωcos
cosωtωtjj
(Fig. 210)
(Fig. 210)
vvis
istangent
tangent
Section 9.5 p98
to
toC.
C. Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig
Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
 9.5 Curves. Arc Length. Curvature. Torsion

EXAMPLE 7 (continued)
Centripetal Acceleration. Centrifugal Force
Its
Itsmagnitude,
magnitude,the
thespeed,
speed,isis
v  r  r  r R .
Hence
Henceititisisconstant.
constant.TheThespeed
speeddivided
dividedby bythethe
distance
distanceRRfrom
fromthe
thecenter
centerisiscalled
calledthetheangular
angular
speed.
speed.ItItequals
equalsω,ω,sosothat
thatititisisconstant,
constant,too.
too.
Differentiating
Differentiatingthethevelocity
velocityvector,
vector,we weobtain
obtainthethe
acceleration
accelerationvector
vector 2
(19)
(19) a = v′ = [−Rω
a = v′ = [−Rω 2cos ωt, −Rω 2sin ωt]
cos ωt, −Rω
2
sin ωt]
==−Rω
−Rω2coscosωt ωtii− −Rω Rω2sin ωtj.j.
sinωt
2 2

Section 9.5 p99 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
 9.5 Curves. Arc Length. Curvature. Torsion

EXAMPLE 7 (continued)
Centripetal Acceleration. Centrifugal Force

Fig. 210. Centripetal acceleration a

Fig. 210. Centripetal acceleration a

Section 9.5 p100 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
 9.5 Curves. Arc Length. Curvature. Torsion

EXAMPLE 7 (continued)
Centripetal Acceleration. Centrifugal Force

This shows that a = −ω2rr(Fig.

This shows that a = −ω (Fig.210),
210),so
sothat
thatthere
thereisis
2

ananacceleration
accelerationtoward
towardthethecenter,
center,called
calledthe
the
centripetal
centripetalacceleration
accelerationof ofthe
themotion.
motion.ItItoccurs
occurs
because
becausethethevelocity
velocityvector
vectorisischanging
changingdirection
directionat at
aaconstant
constant rate.
rate. Its
Itsmagnitude
magnitude isisconstant,
constant, |a|
|a| =
= ωω2||
2

r|r| = ω2R.
= ω 2
Multiplyingaaby
R.Multiplying bythe
themass
massm mofofB,
B,we
wegetget
thecentripetal
the centripetalforce
forcema.
ma.TheTheopposite
oppositevector
vector
−ma
−maisiscalled thecentrifugal
calledthe centrifugalforce.
force.AtAteach
each
instant
instantthese
thesetwo
twoforces
forcesare
arein
inequilibrium.
equilibrium.
We
Weseeseethat
thatininthis
thismotion
motionthetheacceleration
accelerationvector
vector
isisnormal
normal(perpendicular)
(perpendicular)to toC;
C;hence
hencethere
thereisisno
no
tangential
tangentialacceleration.
acceleration.
Section 9.5 p101 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig
Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
 9.5 Curves. Arc Length. Curvature. Torsion

EXAMPLE 8
Superposition of Rotations. Coriolis Acceleration
AAprojectile
projectileisismoving
movingwith
withconstant
constantspeed
speedalong
alongaa
meridian
meridianofofthe
therotating
rotatingEarth
Earthin
inFig.
Fig.211.
211.Find
Findits
its
acceleration.
acceleration.

Fig. 211. Example 8. Superposition of two 10/e

rotations
Section 9.5 p102 Fig. 211. Example 8. Superposition
Advanced of two rotations
Engineering Mathematics, by Edwin Kreyszig
Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
 9.5 Curves. Arc Length. Curvature. Torsion

EXAMPLE 8 (continued)
Superposition of Rotations. Coriolis Acceleration
Solution.
Solution.LetLetx,
x,y,
y,zzbe
beaafixed
fixedCartesian
Cartesiancoordinate
coordinate
system
systemininspace,
space,with
withunit vectorsi,i,j,j,kkin
unitvectors inthe
the
directions
directionsof
ofthe
theaxes.
axes.Let
Letthe
theEarth,
Earth,together
togetherwith
with
aaunit vectorb,
unitvector b,beberotating
rotatingabout
aboutthethez-axis
z-axiswith
with
angular
angularspeed
speedωω> >00(see
(seeExample
Example7). Sincebbisis
7).Since
rotating
rotatingtogether
togetherwith
withthe
theEarth,
Earth,ititisisof
ofthe
theform
form
b(t)
b(t)==cos
cosωtωtii++sin ωtj.j.
sinωt
Let
Letthe
theprojectile
projectilebe
bemoving
movingon onthe
themeridian
meridianwhose
whose
plane
planeisisspanned
spannedbybybband
andkk(Fig.
(Fig.211)
211)with
with
constant
constantangular
angular
speed
speedωω> >0.
0.Then
Thenits
itsposition
positionvector
vectorin
interms ofbb
termsof
andkkisis
and
Section 9.5 p103 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig
r(t)
r(t)=
=RRcos γtb(t)
cosγt b(t)++RRsin γtkk
sinγt
Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
 9.5 Curves. Arc Length. Curvature. Torsion

EXAMPLE 8 (continued)
Superposition of Rotations. Coriolis Acceleration
Solution.
Solution.(continued 1)
(continued 1)
We
Wehave
havefinished
finishedsetting
settingupupthe
themodel.
model.Next,
Next,we
we
apply
applyvector
vectorcalculus
calculusto toobtain
obtainthe
thedesired
desired
acceleration
accelerationof ofthe
theprojectile.
projectile.Our
Ourresult
resultwill
willbe
be
unexpected—and
unexpected—andhighly highlyrelevant
relevantfor
forair
airand
andspace
space
travel.
travel.The
Thefirst firstand
andsecond
secondderivatives
derivativesofofbbwith
with
respect
respecttoto(ttt)are
b are sinti   costj

b(t)   2 costi   2 sintj   2b(t).
(20)
(20)

Section 9.5 p104 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
 9.5 Curves. Arc Length. Curvature. Torsion

EXAMPLE 8 (continued)
Superposition of Rotations. Coriolis Acceleration
Solution.
Solution.(continued 2)
(continued 2)
The
Thefirst
firstand
andsecond
secondderivatives
derivativesof ofr(t)
r(t)with
withrespect
respect
to
tottare
are
v r(t) Rcostb   Rsin tb  R costk

a v(t)
(21)
(21) Rcostb  2Rsin tb   2R costb   2R sin tk
Rcostb  2Rsin tb   2r.

By
Byanalogy
analogy with
withExample
Example 77andand because
because of
of b"b" ==
−ω2bbin
−ω in(20)
(20)weweconclude
concludethat thatthe thefirstfirstterm termin inaa
2

(involving
(involving
Section 9.5 p105 inb"!)
ωωin b"!)isisthe
the centripetal
centripetal
Advanced
acceleration
acceleration
Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig
due
due to the rotation of theEarth.
to the rotation of the Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
Earth.
 9.5 Curves. Arc Length. Curvature. Torsion

EXAMPLE 8 (continued)
Superposition of Rotations. Coriolis Acceleration
Solution.
Solution.(continued 3)
(continued 3)
Similarly,
Similarly,thethethird
thirdterm
termininthe
thelast
lastline
line(involving
(involving
γ!)
γ!)isisthe
thecentripetal
centripetalacceleration
accelerationdue
duetotothe
themotion
motion
ofofthe
theprojectile
projectileononthe
themeridian
meridianM Mofofthe
therotating
rotating
Earth.
Earth.
The
Thesecond,
second,unexpected
unexpectedterm
term−2γR
−2γRsin γtb′
sinγt inaa
b′in
isiscalled theCoriolis
calledthe Coriolisacceleration
acceleration(Fig.
(Fig.211)
211)and
and
isisdue
dueto tothe
theinteraction
interactionofofthe
thetwo
tworotations.
rotations.

Section 9.5 p106 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
 9.5 Curves. Arc Length. Curvature. Torsion

EXAMPLE 8 (continued)
Superposition of Rotations. Coriolis Acceleration
Solution.
Solution.(continued
(continued 4)
4)
On
Onthe
theNorthern
NorthernHemisphere,
Hemisphere,sin sinγt
γt> >00(for
(fortt> >0;
0;
also
alsoγγ> >00bybyassumption),
assumption),so thataacor
sothat cor
has
has the
the
direction
directionof of−b′,
−b′,thatthatis,
is,opposite
oppositeto tothe
therotation
rotationof of
the
theEarth.
Earth.|a |acor||isismaximum
maximum at
at the
theNorth
North Pole
Pole and
and
cor
zero
zeroatatthe
theequator.
equator.The Theprojectile
projectileBBof ofmass
massm m00
experiences
experiencesaaforce force−m −m00aacor
cor
opposite
opposite to
tom m0aacor ,,
0 cor
which
whichtends
tendsto tolet
letBBdeviate
deviatefrom fromM Mtotothe
theright
right
(and
(andininthe
theSouthern
SouthernHemisphere,
Hemisphere,where wheresin sinγt γt< <0,
0,
to
tothe
theleft).
left).This
Thisdeviation
deviationhashasbeenbeenobserved
observedfor for
missiles,
missiles,rockets,
rockets,shells,
shells,and
andatmospheric
atmosphericairflow.
airflow.
Section 9.5 p107 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig
Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
 9.6
9.6 Calculus
Calculus Review:
Review:
Functions
Functions of
of Several
Several Variables.
Variables.
Optional
Optional

Section 9.6 p108 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
 9.6 Calculus Review: Functions of Several Variables. Optional

Chain Rules
Theorem 1
Chain
ChainRule
Rule
Let
Letw w==f(x,
f(x,y,
y,z)
z)be
becontinuous
continuousandandhave
havecontinuous
continuous
first
firstpartial
partialderivatives
derivativesininaadomain
domainDDin inxyz-space.
xyz-space.
Let
Letxx= =x(u,
x(u,v),
v),yy==y(u,
y(u,v),
v),
zz==z(u,
z(u,v)
v)be
befunctions
functionsthat
thatare
arecontinuous
continuousand andhave
have
first
firstpartial
partialderivatives
derivativesininaadomain
domainBBin inthe
theuv-
uv-
plane,
plane,where
whereBBisissuch
suchthat
thatfor
forevery
everypoint
point(u,
(u,v)
v)in
in
B,
B,the
thecorresponding
correspondingpoint
point[x(u,
[x(u,v),
v),y(u,
y(u,v),
v),z(u,
z(u,v)]
v)]
lies
liesin
inD.
D.See
SeeFig.
Fig.213.
213.

Section 9.6 p109 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
 9.6 Calculus Review: Functions of Several Variables. Optional

Chain Rules
Theorem 1 (continued)
Chain
ChainRule
Rule(continued 1)
(continued 1)

Fig. 213. Notations in Theorem 1

Fig. 213. Notations in Theorem 1
Section 9.6 p110 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig
Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
 9.6 Calculus Review: Functions of Several Variables. Optional

Chain Rules
Theorem 1 (continued)
Chain
ChainRule
Rule(continued 2)
(continued 2)

Then
Thenthe
thefunction
function
w
w==f(x(u,
f(x(u,v),
v),y(u,
y(u,v),
v),z(u,
z(u,v))
v))
isisdefined
definedin
inB,
B,has
hasfirst
firstpartial
partialderivatives
derivativeswith
with
respect
respecttotouuand
andvvin
inB,
B,and
and
w w x w y w z
  
u x u y u z u
(1)
(1) w w x w y w z
   .
v x v y v z v

Section 9.6 p111 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
 9.6 Calculus Review: Functions of Several Variables. Optional

In
Inthis theorem,aadomain
thistheorem, domainDDisisan anopen
openconnected
connected
point
pointsetsetininxyz-space,
xyz-space,where
where“connected”
“connected”means means
that
thatany
anytwotwopoints
pointsof
ofDDcancanbebejoined
joinedby byaabroken
broken
line
lineofoffinitely
finitelymany
manylinear
linearsegments
segmentsall allof
ofwhose
whose
points
pointsbelong
belongto toD.
D.“Open”
“Open”meansmeansthatthatevery
everypoint
point
PPofofDDhas
hasaaneighborhood
neighborhood(a (alittle
littleball
ballwith
withcenter
center
P)
P)all
allof
ofwhose
whosepoints
pointsbelong
belongto toD.
D.For
Forexample,
example,thethe
interior
interiorof ofaacube
cubeororofofan
anellipsoid
ellipsoid(the
(thesolid
solid
without
withoutthe theboundary
boundarysurface)
surface)isisaadomain.
domain.
In
Incalculus,
calculus,x, x,y,
y,zzare
areoften
oftencalled
calledthethe
intermediate
intermediatevariables,
variables,in incontrast
contrastwithwiththe
the
independent
independentvariables
variablesu, u,vvand
andthethedependent
dependent
variable
variablew. w.
Section 9.6 p112 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig
Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
 9.6 Calculus Review: Functions of Several Variables. Optional

Special
SpecialCases
Casesof
ofPractical
PracticalInterest
Interest
IfIfw
w==f(x,
f(x,y)
y)and
andxx=
=x(u,
x(u,v),
v),yy=
=y(u,
y(u,v)
v)as
asbefore,
before,
then
then(1)
(1)becomes
becomes
w w x w y
 
u x u y u
(2)
(2) w w x w y
  .
v x v y v

Section 9.6 p113 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
 9.6 Calculus Review: Functions of Several Variables. Optional

Special
SpecialCases
Casesof
ofPractical
PracticalInterest
Interest(continued 1)
(continued 1)

IfIfw
w= =f(x,
f(x,y,
y,z)
z)and
andxx=
=x(t),
x(t),yy==y(t),
y(t),zz=
=z(t),
z(t),then
then
(1)
(1)gives
gives
dw wdx w dy wdz
   .
(3) dt x dt y dt z dt
(3)
IfIfw
w==f(x,
f(x,y)
y)and
dw and xx=
wdx=x(t),
w dyyy=
x(t), =y(t),
y(t),then
then(3)
(3)reduces
reduces
to   .
to dt x dt y dt
(4)
(4)
dw wdx
Finally, the  case
simplest . w = f(x), x = x(t) gives
Finally, the simplest
dt x case
dt w = f(x), x = x(t) gives
(5)
(5)
Section 9.6 p114 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig
Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
 9.6 Calculus Review: Functions of Several Variables. Optional

Mean Value Theorems

Theorem 2
Mean
MeanValue
ValueTheorem
Theorem
Let
Letff(x, (x,y, y,z)z)be
becontinuous
continuousand andhave havecontinuous
continuousfirst
first
partial
partialderivatives
derivativesin inaadomain
domainDDin inxyz-space.
xyz-space.LetLetPP00::
(x
(x00,,yy00,,zz00))and
and
P:
P:(x (x00+ +h, h,yy00++k,
k,zz00++ll))bebepoints
pointsin inDDsuch
suchthat
thatthethe
straight
straight line
line segment
segment PP0PPjoining
joining these
ff points
these  lies
points flies
f (x0  h, y0  k, z0  l)  f (x0 , y0 , z0 ) h  k  l ,
0
entirely
entirelyin inD.D.Then
Then x y z

(7)
(7)
the
the partial
9.6 p115 derivatives being
partial
Section
derivatives being evaluated
evaluated
Advanced Engineering Mathematics,at
10/ea
at by suitable
a suitable
Edwin Kreyszig

point
pointof ofthat
thatsegment.
segment.
Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
 9.7
9.7 Gradient
Gradient of
of aa Scalar
Scalar Field.
Field.
Directional
Directional Derivative
Derivative

Section 9.7 p116 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
 9.7 Gradient of a Scalar Field. Directional Derivative

Definition 1
Gradient
Gradient
The
Thesetting
settingisisthat
thatwe wearearegiven
givenaascalar
scalarfunction
functionf(x,
f(x,
y,
y,z)
z)that
thatisisdefined
definedandanddifferentiable
differentiablein inaadomain
domaininin
3-space
3-spacewith
withCartesian
Cartesiancoordinates
coordinatesx, x,y,
y,z.
z.We
Wedenote
denote
thegradient
the gradientof ofthat
that nabla
fffunction
(read
function by ).gradffor
bygrad or
Then
Thenthethegradient
gradientof off(x,
f(x,y,
y,z)
z)isisdefined
definedas asthe
thevector
vector
function
function  ff  ff  ff 
grad ff  , ,   i  j  k.
 x y z x y z
(1)
(1)

Section 9.7 p117 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
 9.7 Gradient of a Scalar Field. Directional Derivative

The notation f is suggested by the differential operator 

(read nabla f ) defined by

  
(1*)   i  j  k.
(1*) x y z

Section 9.7 p118 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
 9.7 Gradient of a Scalar Field. Directional Derivative

Directional Derivative
Definition 2
Directional
DirectionalDerivative
Derivative
The
Thedirectional
directionalderivative
derivativeDDbbffor
ordf/ds
df/dsof
ofaafunction
function
f(x,
f(x,y,
y,z)
z)at
ataapoint
pointPPin
inthe
thedirection
directionof vectorbbisis
ofaavector
defined
definedby by(see
(seeFig.
Fig.215)
215)
dff (Q)  f (P)
(2) Db f  lim .
(2) ds s 0 s
Here
HereQQisisaavariable
variablepoint
pointon onthe
thestraight
straightline
lineLLinin
the
thedirection
directionof ofb,
b,and
and|s|
|s|isisthe
thedistance
distancebetween
betweenPP
and
andQ.
Q.Also,
Also,ss> >00ififQQlies
liesininthe
thedirection
directionofofbb(as
(as
in
inFig.
Fig.215),
215),ss< <00ififQQlies
liesininthe
thedirection
directionofof−b,
−b,
and
andss= =00ififQQ==P.P.
Section 9.7 p119 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig
Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
 9.7 Gradient of a Scalar Field. Directional Derivative

Fig. 215. Directional derivative

Fig. 215. Directional derivative

The
Theline
lineLLisisgiven
givenbyby
(3)
(3) r(s)
r(s)= x(s)ii+
=x(s) y(s)jj+
+y(s) z(s)kk=
+z(s) =pp00+
+sb
sb
(|b|
(|b|==1)1)
where
where pp0p120
Section 9.7 isisthe
theposition
positionvector
vector
Advanced ofof
EngineeringP.
P.
Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig
0 Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
 9.7 Gradient of a Scalar Field. Directional Derivative

Hence,
Hence,assuming
assumingthat
thatffhas
hascontinuous
continuouspartial
partial
derivatives
derivativesand
andapplying
applyingthe
thechain
chainrule
rule[formula
[formula(3)
(3)
in
inthe
theprevious
previoussection],
section],we
weobtain
obtain
dff  ff 
(4)
(4) Db f   x  y  z
ds x y z
where
whereprimes
primesdenote
denotederivatives
derivativeswith
withrespect
respecttotoss
(which
(whichare aretaken
takenat atss=
=0).
0).But
Buthere,
here,differentiating
differentiating
(3)
(3)gives
gives
r′r′=
=x′x′ii++y′y′jj+
+z′z′kk==b.
b.

Section 9.7 p121 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
 9.7 Gradient of a Scalar Field. Directional Derivative

Hence
Hence(4)
(4)isissimply
simplythe
theinner
innerproduct
productof
ofgrad
gradffand
and
bb[see
[see(2),
(2),Sec.
Sec.9.2];
9.2];that
thatis,
is,
df
(5)
(5) Db ff b  grad ( b 1).
ds
ATTENTION!
ATTENTION!IfIfthethedirection
directionisisgiven
givenby vectoraa
byaavector
of
ofany
anylength
length(≠
(≠0),
0),then
then
df 1
(5*)
(5*) Da ff  a  grad .
ds a

Section 9.7 p122 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig
Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
 9.7 Gradient of a Scalar Field. Directional Derivative

Gradient Is a Vector. Maximum Increase

Theorem 1
Use
Useof
ofGradient:
Gradient:Direction
Directionof
ofMaximum
MaximumIncrease
Increase
Let
Letf(P)
f(P)==f(x,
f(x,y,
y,z)
z)be
beaascalar
scalarfunction
functionhaving
having
continuous
continuousfirst
firstpartial
partialderivatives
derivativesininsome
somedomain
domainBB
in
inspace.
space.Then
Thengrad
gradffexists
existsin
inBBand
andisisaavector,
vector,that
that
is,
is,its
itslength
lengthand
anddirection
directionare areindependent
independentof ofthe
the
particular
particularchoice
choiceof ofCartesian
Cartesiancoordinates.
coordinates.IfIfgrad
gradf(P)
f(P)
≠≠00at atsome
somepoint
pointP,P,itithas
hasthe
thedirection
directionofofmaximum
maximum
increase
increaseof offfat
atP.
P.

Section 9.7 p124 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
 9.7 Gradient of a Scalar Field. Directional Derivative

Gradient as Surface Normal Vector

Theorem 2
Gradient
Gradientas
asSurface
SurfaceNormal
NormalVector
Vector
Let
Letbebeaadifferentiable
differentiablescalar
scalarfunction
functionin inspace.
space.Let
Let
f(x,
f(x,y,
y,z)
z)==cc= =const
constrepresent
representaasurface
surfaceS. S.Then
Thenifif
the
thegradient
gradientof offfat
ataapoint
pointPPof
ofSSisisnot
notthe
thezero
zero
vector,
vector,ititisisaanormal
normalvector
vectorof
ofSSat
atP.P.

Fig. 216. Gradient as surface normal vector

Fig. 216. Gradient as surface normal vector
Section 9.7 p125 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig
Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
 9.7 Gradient of a Scalar Field. Directional Derivative

EXAMPLE 2 Gradient as Surface Normal Vector. Cone

Find
Findaaunit
unitnormal
normal vector
vectornnofofthe
the cone
coneof
ofrevolution
revolution
zz2=
2
=4(x
4(x2+
2
+yy2))at
2
atthe
thepoint
pointP:
P:(1,
(1,0,0,2).
2).
Solution.
Solution.
The
The cone
cone is
isthe
thelevel
levelsurface
surfaceff==00of
off(x,
f(x,y,
y,z)
z)==4(x
4(x
2
2
++ y ) − z2..Thus
y 2
2) − z2
Thus(Fig.
(Fig.217)
217)
grad
gradff= =[8x,
[8x,8y,
8y,−2z],
−2z], grad
gradf(P)
f(P)=
=[8,
[8,0,
0,
4]
4] 1  2 1
n grad f (P)  , 0,   .
grad f (P)  5 5

nnpoints
pointsdownwarddownwardsince
sinceitithas hasaanegative
negativez- z-
component.
component.The Theother
otherunit
unitnormal
normalvector vectorof ofthethecone cone
at PPisis
atSection 9.7−n.
−n.
p126 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig
Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
 9.7 Gradient of a Scalar Field. Directional Derivative

EXAMPLE 2 Gradient as Surface Normal Vector. Cone

Solution.
Solution.(continued)
(continued)

Fig. 217. Cone and unit normal vector n

Fig. 217. Cone and unit normal vector n
Section 9.7 p127 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig
Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
 9.7 Gradient of a Scalar Field. Directional Derivative

Vector Fields That Are Gradients of Scalar

Fields (“Potentials”)
At
Atthethebeginning
beginningof ofthis
thissection
sectionwe wementioned
mentionedthat that
some
somevector vectorfields
fieldshave
havethe theadvantage
advantagethat thatthey they
can
canbe beobtained
obtainedfrom fromscalar
scalarfields, fields,which whichcan canbe be
worked
workedwith withmore
moreeasily.
easily.SuchSuchaavector vectorfield fieldisis
given
givenby byaavector functionv(P),
vectorfunction v(P),which whichisisobtained obtained
as
asthethegradient
gradientof ofaascalar
scalarfunction,
function,say, say,v(P) v(P)= =
grad
gradf(P). f(P).The Thefunction
functionisiscalledcalledaapotential potentialfunction function
oraapotential
or potentialof ofv(P).
v(P).SuchSuchaav(P) v(P)and andthe the
corresponding
correspondingvector vectorfield
fieldare calledconservative
arecalled conservative
because
becausein insuch
suchaavector
vectorfield,
field,energyenergyisisconserved; conserved;
that
thatis, is,no noenergy
energyisislostlost(or(orgained)
gained)in indisplacing
displacingaa
body
body(or (oraacharge
chargein inthe
thecase
caseof ofan anelectrical
electricalfield) field)
from
from aapoint
Section 9.7 pointPPto
p128 toanother
another point
point
Advanced
inin
Engineering
the
the field
Mathematics,field andand
10/e by Edwin Kreyszig
back
back to P. We show thisin
to P. We show this inSec.
Sec.10.2.
Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
10.2.
 9.7 Gradient of a Scalar Field. Directional Derivative

Vector Fields That Are Gradients of Scalar

Fields (“Potentials”)
(continued)
(continued)
Conservative
Conservativefields
fieldsplay
playaacentral
centralrole
roleininphysics
physics
and
andengineering.
engineering.AAbasic
basicapplication
applicationconcerns
concernsthe the
gravitational
gravitationalforce
force(see
(seeExample
Example33in inSec.
Sec.9.4)
9.4)and
and
we
weshow
showthat
thatitithas
hasaapotential
potentialwhich
whichsatisfies
satisfies
Laplace’s
Laplace’sequation,
equation,thethemost
mostimportant
importantpartial
partial
differential
differentialequation
equationin inphysics
physicsand
andits
itsapplications.
applications.

Section 9.7 p129 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
 9.7 Gradient of a Scalar Field. Directional Derivative

Theorem 3
Gravitational
GravitationalField.
Field.Laplace’s
Laplace’sEquation
Equation
The
Theforce
forceof
ofattraction
attraction
c  x  x0 y  y0 z  z0 
(8) p  r3 r  c r3 , r3 , r3 
(8)

between
betweentwo twoparticles
particlesat
atpoints
pointsPP00::(x
(x00,,yy00,,zz00))and
andP:
P:
(x,
(x,y,
y,z)
z)
(as
(asgiven
givenby byNewton’s
Newton’slawlawof
ofgravitation)
gravitation)has hasthe the
potential
potential
f(x,
f(x,y,
y,z)
z)==c/r,
c/r,where
whererr(> (>0)
0)isisthe
thedistance
distancebetween between
PP0 and
andP.P.
0

Section 9.7 p130 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
 9.7 Gradient of a Scalar Field. Directional Derivative

Theorem 3 (continued)
Gravitational
GravitationalField.
Field.Laplace’s
Laplace’sEquation
Equation

Thuspp=
Thus =grad
gradff=
=grad
grad(c/r).
(c/r).This
Thispotential
potentialffisisaa
solution ofLaplace’s
solutionof Laplace’sequation
equation
2 2 2
2  ff   f
(9)
(9)  f  2  2  2 0.
x y z
[[2 f (read
(readnabla
nablasquared
squaredff))isiscalled theLaplacian
calledthe Laplacian
of
off.]
f.]

Section 9.7 p131 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
 9.8
9.8 Divergence
Divergence of
of aa Vector
Vector Field
Field

Section 9.8 p132 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
 9.8 Divergence of a Vector Field

To
Tobegin,
begin,let letv(x,
v(x,y,
y,z)z)be
beaadifferentiable
differentiablevector
vector
function,
function,wherewherex, x,y,
y,zzare
areCartesian
Cartesiancoordinates,
coordinates,and
and
let
letvv1,,vv2,,vv3 be
1 2 bethe
thecomponents
3 componentsof ofv.
v.Then
Thenthe
thefunction
function
v1 v2 v3
(1) div v   
(1) x y z
isiscalled thedivergence
calledthe divergenceof ofvvor
orthe
thedivergence
divergenceof
ofthe
the
vector
vectorfield
fielddefined byv.
definedby v.For
Forexample,
example,ifif
vv== [3xz, 2xy, −yz ] = 3xzi + 2xy j − yz2k,
[3xz, 2xy, −yz 2
2] = 3xzi + 2xy j − yz2
k,
then
then divvv=
div =3z
3z++2x2x−−2yz.
2yz.

Section 9.8 p133 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
 9.8 Divergence of a Vector Field

Another
Anothercommon
commonnotation
notationforforthe
thedivergence
divergenceisis
   
div v   v  , ,    v1 , v2 , v3 
 x y z
    
 i + j  k   v1i  v2j  v3k
 x y z 
v1 v2 v3
   ,
x y z
with
withthe theunderstanding
understandingthatthatthe the“product”
“product”(∂/∂x (∂/∂x)v )v11inin
the
thedot
dotproduct
productmeans
meansthethepartial
partialderivative
derivative∂v ∂v11/∂x,
/∂x,
etc.   v
etc.This
Thisisisaaconvenient
convenientnotation,
notation,
 ff means
but
but nothing
thenothing
vector
more.
more.
grad
Note
Notethat that
means
meansthe thescalar divv,
scalardiv v,whereas
whereas
defined
definedin
Section 9.8 p134Sec. 9.7.
in Sec. 9.7.
Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig
Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
 9.8 Divergence of a Vector Field

Theorem 1
Invariance
Invarianceof ofthe
theDivergence
Divergence
The
Thedivergence
divergencediv divvvisisaascalar
scalarfunction,
function,that
thatis,
is,its
its
values
valuesdependdependonly onlyononthe
thepoints
pointsin
inspace
space(and,
(and,ofof
course,
course,on onv) v)but
butnot
noton
onthethechoice
choiceofofthe
thecoordinates
coordinates
in
in(1),
(1),so sothat
thatwith
withrespect
respectto toother
otherCartesian
Cartesian
coordinates
coordinatesx*, x*,y*,
y*,z*
z*and
andcorresponding
correspondingcomponents
components
vv1*,*,vv2*,*,vv3**ofofv,
v, v1 v2 v3
1 2 3
div v       .
(2) x y z
(2)

Section 9.8 p135 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
 9.8 Divergence of a Vector Field

Let
Letff(x,
(x,y,
y,z)
z)be
beaatwice
twicedifferentiable
differentiablescalar
scalarfunction.
function.
Then
Then
its gradient exists, ff  ff  ff 
v grad
its gradient f  ,
exists, ,   i + j k
 x y z x y z

and
andwewecan
candifferentiate
differentiateonce
oncemore,
more,thethefirst
first
component
componentwith withrespect
respectto to2x,
x,the
the second with
withrespect
2 second
2 respect
to y, the third with respect ff z, andthen
 to f form the
to y, the
divthird with
v div respect
(grad f )  to z, and  then. form the
divergence,
divergence,
2
x y z 2 2

Hence
Hencewewehave
havethethebasic
basicresult
result that
thatthe
thedivergence
divergenceof
of
2
the gradient is thediv(grad ff) (Sec.
Laplacian . 9.7),
the gradient is the Laplacian (Sec. 9.7),
(3)
(3)Section 9.8 p136 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig
Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
 9.8 Divergence of a Vector Field

EXAMPLE 2 Flow of a Compressible Fluid.

Physical Meaning of the Divergence
We
Weconsider
considerthe themotion
motionof ofaafluid fluidin inaaregionregionRR
having
havingno nosources
sourcesor orsinks
sinksin inR, R,thatthatis, is,no nopointspointsat at
which
whichfluid fluidisisproduced
producedor ordisappears.
disappears.The Theconcept concept
offluid
of fluidstate stateisismeant
meantto tocover
coveralso alsogases gasesand and
vapors.
vapors.Fluids Fluidsin inthe
therestricted
restrictedsense, sense,or orliquids,
liquids,
such
suchas aswater
wateror oroil,
oil,have
havevery verysmall smallcompressibility,
compressibility,
which
whichcan canbe beneglected
neglectedin inmany
manyproblems.problems.In In
contrast,
contrast,gases gasesandandvapors
vaporshave havehigh high
compressibility.
compressibility.Their Theirdensity
densityρρ(= (=massmassper perunit unit
volume)
volume)depends dependson onthethecoordinates
coordinatesx, x,y, y,zzin inspacespace
and
andmay mayalso alsodepend
dependon ontime
timet.t.We Weassumeassumethat thatour our
fluid
fluidisiscompressible.
compressible.We Weconsider
considerthe theflow flowthrough throughaa
rectangular
rectangular box
box BBof
of small
small edges
edges Δx,
Δx, Δy,
Δy, ΔzΔz parallel
parallel
Section 9.8 p137 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig
to the coordinate
to the coordinate axes as axes as shown in
shown in Fig. 218. Fig. 218.
Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
 9.8 Divergence of a Vector Field

EXAMPLE 2 (continued) Flow of a Compressible Fluid.

Physical Meaning of the Divergence
(continued 1)
(continued 1)
(Here
(HereΔΔisisaastandard
standardnotationnotationforforsmall
smallquantities
quantities
and,
and,ofofcourse,
course,has hasnothing
nothingto todo
dowith
withthe
thenotation
notation
for
forthe
theLaplacian
Laplacianin in(11)
(11)of ofSec.
Sec.9.7.)
9.7.)
The
Thebox
boxBBhas hasthe thevolume
volumeΔV ΔV= =ΔxΔx+ +Δy
Δy++Δz.
Δz.
Letvv=
Let =[v
[v11,,vv22,,vv33]]==vv11ii+
+vv22jj++vv33kkbe
bethe
thevelocity
velocity
vector
vectorofofthe
themotion.
motion.We Wesetset
(4)
(4) uu= =ρvρv==[u =uu11ii+
[u11,,uu22,,uu33]]= +uu22jj+
+uu33kk
and
andassume thatuuand
assumethat andvvare arecontinuously
continuously
differentiable
differentiablevector
vectorfunctions
functionsof ofx,
x,y,
y,z,
z,and
andt,t,that
that
is,
is,they
theyhave
havefirst
first
partial
partialderivatives
derivativeswhich
whichare arecontinuous.
continuous.
Section 9.8 p138 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig
Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
 9.8 Divergence of a Vector Field

EXAMPLE 2 (continued) Flow of a Compressible Fluid.

Physical Meaning of the Divergence
(continued 2) Let us calculate the change in the mass
(continued 2) Let us calculate the change in the mass
included
includedin inBBbybyconsidering
consideringthe theflux
fluxacross
acrossthethe
boundary,
boundary,thatthatis,is,the
thetotal
totalloss
lossof ofmass
massleaving
leavingBBper per
unit
unittime.
time.Consider
Considerthe theflow
flowthrough
throughthe theleft
leftof
ofthe
the
three
threefaces
facesof ofBBthat
thatare
arevisible
visiblein inFig.
Fig.218,
218,whose
whose
area
areaisisΔxΔz.
ΔxΔz.Since
Sincethe vectorsvv11iiand
thevectors andvv33kkare
are
parallel
paralleltotothat
thatface,
face,thethecomponents
componentsvv11and andvv22ofofvv
contribute
contributenothing
nothingto tothis
thisflow.
flow.Hence
Hencethe themass
massof of
fluid
fluidentering
enteringthrough
throughthat thatface
faceduring
duringaashort
shorttime
time
interval
intervalΔtΔtisisgiven
givenapproximately
approximatelyby by
(ρv
(ρv2))y Δx
ΔxΔzΔzΔtΔt==(u(u2))y Δx
ΔxΔzΔzΔt,
Δt,
2 y 2 y
where
wherethe thesubscript
subscriptyyindicates
indicatesthat thatthis thisexpression
expression
refers
Section to
9.8 the
p139 left face. Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig
refers to the left face. Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
 9.8 Divergence of a Vector Field

EXAMPLE 2 (continued) Flow of a Compressible Fluid.

Physical Meaning of the Divergence
(continued 3)
(continued 3)
The
Themass massof offluid
fluidleaving
leavingthe thebox
boxBBthrough
throughthe the
opposite
oppositeface faceduring
duringthethesame
sametimetimeinterval
intervalisis
approximately
approximately
(u
(u22))yy++ΔyΔyΔx
ΔxΔz ΔzΔt,
Δt,where
wherethe thesubscript
subscriptyy+ +ΔyΔy
indicates
indicatesthat thatthis
this expression
expression refers
refers to
to the
the right
right face
face
(which is not u
visible
2 in Fig. 218).

(which u  x  y  t 
is not visible VinFig.
t  uThe
218). (
The udifference
)yy  (u2 )y 
2difference
2
y  2

isisthe
theapproximate
approximateloss
lossof
ofmass.
mass.Two
Twosimilar
similar
expressions
expressionsare
areobtained
obtainedby byconsidering
consideringthe
theother
other
two
twopairs
pairsof
ofparallel
parallelfaces
facesof
ofB.
B.
Section 9.8 p140 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig
Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
 9.8 Divergence of a Vector Field

EXAMPLE 2 (continued) Flow of a Compressible Fluid.

Physical Meaning of the Divergence
(continued 4)
(continued 4)
IfIfwe
weadd
addthese
thesethree
threeexpressions,
expressions,we wefind
findthat
thatthe
the
total
totalloss
lossof
ofmass
massin inBBduring
duringthe
thetime
timeinterval
intervalΔt
Δtisis
approximately
approximately u u u 
 x y z  V t,
 
1 2 3

 

where
where
Δu
Δu11= =(u(u11))xx++ΔxΔx−−(u (u11))xx and and Δu Δu33= =(u (u33))zz++ΔzΔz− −
(u
(u33))z.z.
This loss of mass inB is caused by the time rate of
This loss of mass in  V
B is t.
caused by the time rate of
change of the density  t and isisthus equal to
change of
Section 9.8 p141
the density and thus equal to
Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig
Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
 9.8 Divergence of a Vector Field

EXAMPLE 2 (continued) Flow of a Compressible Fluid.

Physical Meaning of the Divergence
(continued 5)
(continued 5)

Fig. 218. Physical interpretation of the divergence

Fig. 218. Physical interpretation of the divergence
Section 9.8 p142 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig
Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
 9.8 Divergence of a Vector Field

EXAMPLE 2 (continued) Flow of a Compressible Fluid.

Physical Meaning of the Divergence
(continued 6)
(continued 6)
IfIfwe
weequate
equateboth
bothexpressions,
expressions,divide
dividethe
theresulting
resulting
equation
equationby
byΔV
ΔVΔt,
Δt,and
andlet
letΔx,
Δx,Δy,
Δy,Δz,
Δz,and
andΔtΔt
approach
approachzero,
zero,then
thenwe
weobtain
obtain

div u div ( v) 
or t
or
(5)
(5) 
 div( v) 0.
t
This
Thisimportant
importantrelation
relationisiscalled
calledthe
thecondition
conditionfor
forthe
the
conservation
conservationof
ofmass
massor thecontinuity
orthe continuityequation
equationof of
aacompressible
compressiblefluid
fluidflow.
flow.
Section 9.8 p143 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig
Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
 9.8 Divergence of a Vector Field

EXAMPLE 2 (continued) Flow of a Compressible Fluid.

Physical Meaning of the Divergence
(continued 7)
(continued 7)
IfIfthe
theflow flowisissteady,
steady,thatthatis, is,independent
independentof oftime,time,
then
then
∂ρ/∂t
∂ρ/∂t= =00and andthe
thecontinuity
continuityequation equationisis
(6)
(6) div
div(ρv)
(ρv)= =0. 0.
IfIfthe
thedensitydensityisisconstant,
constant,so sothat thatthe thefluidfluidisis
incompressible,
incompressible,then thenequation
equation(6) (6)becomes
becomes
(7)
(7) divvv=
div =0. 0.
This
Thisrelation
relationisisknown
knownas asthethecondition
conditionof of
incompressibility.
incompressibility.ItItexpresses expressesthe thefact factthat thatthe the
balance
balanceof ofoutflow
outflowand
andinflow
inflowfor foraagiven givenvolume volume
element
elementisiszero zeroat
atany
anytime.
time.Clearly,
Clearly,the theassumption
assumption
that
thatthe theflowflowhas
hasnonosources
sourcesor orsinks
sinksin inRRisisessential
essential
to our
Section argument.
9.8 p144
to our argument. v is also v is also referred
Advanced Engineering
referred
Copyright
to as
Mathematics,
to& as
2011 by John Wiley
solenoidal.
10/e by Edwin
Sons. solenoidal.
Kreyszig
All rights reserved.
 9.8 Divergence of a Vector Field

EXAMPLE 2 (continued) Flow of a Compressible Fluid.

Physical Meaning of the Divergence
(continued 8)
(continued 8)
From
Fromthis
thisdiscussion
discussionyou
youshould
shouldconclude
concludeand
and
remember
rememberthat,
that,roughly speaking,the
roughlyspeaking, thedivergence
divergence
measures
measuresoutflow
outflowminus
minusinflow.
inflow.
Comment.
Comment.The Thedivergence
divergencetheorem
theoremofofGauss,
Gauss,anan
integral
integraltheorem
theoreminvolving
involvingthe
thedivergence,
divergence,follows
followsin
in
the
thenext
nextchapter
chapter(Sec.
(Sec.10.7).
10.7).

Section 9.8 p145 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
 9.9
9.9 Curl
Curl of
of aa Vector
Vector Field
Field

Section 9.9 p146 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
 9.9 Curl of a Vector Field

Letv(x,
Let v(x,y,
y,z)
z)==[v
[v11,,vv22,,vv33]]==vv11ii+
+vv22jj++vv33kkbe
beaa
differentiable
differentiablevector
vectorfunction
functionof ofthe
theCartesian
Cartesian
coordinates
coordinatesx, x,y,
y,z.
z.Then
Thenthe thecurl
curlof ofthe
thevector
vector
functionvvor
function orof
ofthe
thevector
vectorfield fieldgiven
givenbybyvvisisdefined
defined
by
bythe
the“symbolic”
“symbolic”determinant
i j k
determinant
  
curl v v 
(1) x y z
(1)
v1 v2 v3
 v3 v2   v1 v3   v2 v1 
   i   j    k.
 y z   z x   x y 

This
Thisisisthe theformula
formulawhen
whenx, x,y,y,zzare areright-handed.
right-handed.IfIf
they
theyare areleft-handed,
left-handed,the
thedeterminant
determinanthas hasaaminus minus
sign in
Section front.
9.9
sign in front.
p147 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig
Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
 9.9 Curl of a Vector Field

Instead
Insteadof curlvvone
ofcurl onealso
alsouses
usesthe thenotation rotv.
notationrot v.This
This
isissuggested
suggestedbyby“rotation,”
“rotation,”an
anapplication
applicationexplored
exploredin in
Example
Example2.2.Note
Notethat curlvvisisaavector,
thatcurl vector,as
asshown
shownin in
Theorem
Theorem3. 3.
EXAMPLE 2
Rotation of a Rigid Body. Relation to the Curl
We
Wehave
haveseen
seenininExample
Example5, 5,Sec.
Sec.9.3,
9.3,that
thataarotation
rotation
of
ofaarigid
rigidbody
bodyBBabout
aboutaafixed
fixedaxis
axisin
inspace
spacecan
canbe
be
described
describedby vectorw
byaavector wof
ofmagnitude
magnitudeωωin inthe
the
direction
directionofofthe
theaxis
axisof
ofrotation,
rotation,where
whereω(>0)
ω(>0)isisthe
the
angular
angularspeed
speedof ofthe
therotation, andw
rotation,and wisisdirected
directedso
so
that
thatthe
therotation
rotationappears
appearsclockwise
clockwiseififwe
welook
lookin
inthe
the
direction
directionofofw.
w.

Section 9.9 p148 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
 9.9 Curl of a Vector Field

EXAMPLE 2 (continued 1)
Rotation of a Rigid Body. Relation to the Curl
According
Accordingto to(9),
(9),Sec.
Sec.9.3,
9.3,the
thevelocity
velocityfield
fieldof
ofthe
the
rotation
rotationcan
canbeberepresented
representedin inthe
theform
form
vv==ww× ×rr
whererrisisthe
where theposition
positionvector
vectorof ofaamoving
movingpoint
pointwith
with
respect
respectto
toaaCartesian
Cartesiancoordinate
coordinatesystem
systemhaving
havingthethe
origin
originon
onthe
theaxis
axisofofrotation.
rotation.Let
Letususchoose
chooseright-
right-
handed
handedCartesian
Cartesiancoordinates
coordinatessuchsuchthat
thatthe
theaxis
axisof
of
rotation
rotationisisthe
thez-axis.
z-axis.Then
Then(see
(seeExample
Example22in inSec.
Sec.
9.4)
9.4)
ww==[0,
[0,0, 0,ω]
ω]= ωk, vv=
=ωk, =w w× ×rr==[−ωy,
[−ωy, ωx,
ωx, 0]0]
= −ωyi+
=−ωyi +ωxj.
ωxj.
Section 9.9 p149 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig
Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
 9.9 Curl of a Vector Field

EXAMPLE 2 (continued 2)
Rotation of a Rigid Body. Relation to the Curl
Hence
Hence
i j k
  
curl v   0, 0, 2  2 k 2w.
x y z
 y x 0
This
Thisproves
provesthe
thefollowing
followingtheorem.
theorem.

Section 9.9 p150 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
 9.9 Curl of a Vector Field

Theorem 1
Rotating
RotatingBody
Bodyand
andCurl
Curl
The
Thecurl
curlofofthe
thevelocity
velocityfield
fieldof
ofaarotating
rotatingrigid
rigidbody
body
has
hasthe
thedirection
directionof
ofthe
theaxis
axisof
ofthe
therotation,
rotation,and
andits
its
magnitude
magnitudeequals
equalstwice
twicethe
theangular
angularspeed
speedofofthe
the
rotation.
rotation.

Section 9.9 p151 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
 9.9 Curl of a Vector Field

Theorem 2
Grad,
Grad,Div,
Div,Curl
Curl
Gradient
Gradientfields areirrotational.
fieldsare irrotational.That
Thatis,
is,ififaa
continuously
continuouslydifferentiable
differentiablevector
vectorfunction
functionisisthethe
gradient
gradientofofaascalar
scalarfunction
functionf,f,then
thenits
itscurl
curlisisthe
thezero
zero
vector,
vector,
(2)
(2) curl
curl(grad
(gradff))==0.0.
Furthermore,
Furthermore,the
thedivergence
divergenceof ofthe
thecurl
curlof
ofaatwice
twice
continuously
continuouslydifferentiable
differentiablevector functionvvisiszero,
vectorfunction zero,
(3)
(3) div (curlv)
div(curl v)=
=0.
0.

Section 9.9 p152 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
 9.9 Curl of a Vector Field

Theorem 3
Invariance
Invarianceofofthe
theCurl
Curl
curlvvisisaavector.
curl vector.ItIthas
hasaalength
lengthand
andaadirection
directionthat
that
are
areindependent
independentof ofthe
theparticular
particularchoice
choiceof
ofaa
Cartesian
Cartesiancoordinate
coordinatesystem
systemininspace.
space.

Section 9.9 p153 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
 SUMMARY
SUMMARYOF CHAPTER 9
OFCHAPTER 9
Vector
Vector Differential
Differential Calculus.
Calculus.
Grad,
Grad, Div,
Div, Curl
Curl

Section 9.Summary p154 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
 SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 9
Vector Differential Calculus. Grad, Div, Curl
All
Allvectors
vectorsof
ofthe formaa=
theform =[a =aa11ii+
[a11,,aa22,,aa33]]= +aa22jj+
+
aa3kkconstitute
constitutethe
thereal
real vector
vector space
space RR
3
3with
with
3
componentwise
componentwisevector
vectoraddition
addition
(1)
(1) [a [a11,,aa22,,aa33]]+
+[b
[b11,,bb22,,bb33]]=
=[a
[a11+
+bb11,,aa22+
+bb22,,aa33
++bb3]]3
and
andcomponentwise
componentwisescalar
scalarmultiplication
multiplication(c
(caa
scalar,
scalar,aareal
realnumber)
number)
(2)
(2) c[a
c[a11,,aa22,,aa33]]=
=[ca
[ca11,,ca
ca22,,ca
ca33]] (Sec.
(Sec.
9.1).
9.1).
For
Forinstance, a  b a
instance, the
b resultant
the cos  a1b1 of
resultant ofa2forces
b 
forces a b aaand and bbisisthe the
2 3 3
sumaa+
sum +b.b.
The
The inner
inner product
product or
or dot
dot product
product ofof two
two vectors
vectors
Section 9.Summary p155 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig
isisdefined
definedby by Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
 SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 9
(continued 1) Vector Differential Calculus. Grad, Div, Curl

This
Thisgives
givesfor thenorm
forthe normor orlength
length|a| ofaa
|a|of
(4)
(4) a  a  a  a1
2
 a2
2
 a2
3

as
aswell
wellas
asaaformula
formulaforforγ.γ.IfIfaa••bb==0,0,we callaaand
wecall and
bborthogonal.
orthogonal.The Thedot
dotproduct
productisissuggested
suggestedby bythe
the
work
work
WW= =pp••dddone
doneby forceppin
byaaforce displacementd.
inaadisplacement d.
Thevector
The vectorproduct orcross
productor crossproduct
productvv=
=aa×
×bb
isisaavector
vectorof
oflength
length
(5)
(5) |a ×b|
|a× b|==|a||b|sin
|a||b|sinγγ (Sec.
(Sec.9.3)
9.3)
and
andperpendicular
perpendicularto bothaaand
toboth andbbsuch thata,
suchthat a,b,
b,vv
form
formaaright-handed
right-handedtriple.
triple.
Section 9.Summary p156 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig
Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
 SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 9
(continued 2) Vector Differential Calculus. Grad, Div, Curl

In
Interms
termsof
ofcomponents
componentswith
withrespect
respectto
toright-
right-
handed
handedcoordinates,
coordinates,
i j k
(6) ab  a1 a2 a3 (Sec.
(6) (Sec.9.3).
9.3).
b1 b2 b3
The
Thevector
vectorproduct
productisissuggested,
suggested,for
forinstance,
instance,by
by
moments
momentsofofforces
forcesor
orby
byrotations.
rotations.
CAUTION!
CAUTION!
This
Thismultiplication anticommutative,aa×
multiplicationisisanticommutative, ×bb=
=−b
−b
××a,
a,and
andisisnot
notassociative.
associative.

Section 9.Summary p157 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
 SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 9
(continued 3) Vector Differential Calculus. Grad, Div, Curl

An
An(oblique)
(oblique)box
boxwith edgesa,
withedges a,b,
b,cchas
hasvolume
volume
equal
equalto
tothe
theabsolute
absolutevalue
valueof thescalar
ofthe scalartriple
triple
product
product
(7)
(7) (a bb c)
(a c)==aa••(b (b××c) c)==(a (a××b) b)••c.
c.
Sections
Sections9.4–9.9
9.4–9.9extend
extenddifferential
differentialcalculus
calculusto to
vector
vector functions
v(t)functions
 v1(t), v2(t), v3(t) v1(t)i  v2(t)j  v3(t)k

and
andtotovector
vectorfunctions
functionsof ofmore
morethan thanone onevariable
variable
(see
(seebelow).
below). The
The derivative
derivative of
ofv(t)
v(t) isis
dv v(t  t)  v(t)
v(t)  lim  v1 , v2 , v3  v1i  v2j  v3k.
(8) dt t  0 t
(8)
Section 9.Summary p158 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig
Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
 SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 9
(continued 4) Vector Differential Calculus. Grad, Div, Curl

Differentiation
Differentiationrules
rulesareareas
asin
incalculus.
calculus.They
Theyimply
imply
(Sec.
(Sec.9.4)  
(u9.4)
 v) u  v  u  v, (u  v) u  v  u  v.

Curves
CurvesCCin inspace
spacerepresented
representedby bythetheposition
position
vectorr(t)
vector haver′(t)
r(t)have asaatangent
r′(t)as tangentvector
vector(the (the
velocity
velocityin inmechanics
mechanicswhen time),r′r′(s)
whenttisistime), (s)(s(sarcarc
length,
length,Sec.Sec.9.5)
9.5)as
asthe
theunit
unittangent
tangentvector,
vector,andand|r″ |r″
(s)|
(s)|==κκas asthe
thecurvature
curvature(the
(theacceleration
accelerationin in
mechanics).
mechanics).
Vector
Vectorfunctions
functionsv(x,v(x,y,
y,z)
z)==[v[v11(x,
(x,y,
y,z),
z),vv22(x,
(x,y,
y,
z),
z),vv3(x,
(x,y,
y,z)]
z)]represent
representvector
vectorfields
fieldsin inspace.
space.
3

Section 9.Summary p159 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
 SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 9
(continued 5) Vector Differential Calculus. Grad, Div, Curl

Partial
Partialderivatives
derivativeswith
withrespect
respectto
tothe
theCartesian
Cartesian
coordinates
coordinatesx, x,y,
y,zzare
areobtained
obtainedcomponentwise,
componentwise,for for
instance,
v  v1 v2 v3  v1 v2 v3
instance,
 , ,   i j k
x  x x x  x x x
(Sec.
(Sec.9.6).
9.6).

Thegradient
The gradientofofaascalar
 ff function
scalar f  isis
function
grad ff  , , 
 x y z
(9)
(9) (Sec.
(Sec.9.7).
9.7).

Thedirectional
The directional dfderivative
1
derivative of
offfin
inthe
thedirection
directionof
ofaa
vector a is Da ff  a   .
vector a is ds a
(10)
(10)
Section 9.Summary p160
(Sec.
(Sec.9.7).
9.7).
Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig
Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
 SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 9
(continued 6) Vector Differential Calculus. Grad, Div, Curl

Thedivergence
The divergenceof ofaavector functionvvisis
vectorfunction
v1 v2 v3
(11)
(11) div v   v    (Sec.
(Sec.9.8).
9.8).
x y z

Thecurl
The ofvvisis
curlof
i j k
  
(12) curl v v  (Sec.
(12) x y z (Sec.9.9)
9.9)
v1 v2 v3

or
orminus
minusthe
thedeterminant
determinantififthe
thecoordinates
coordinatesare
areleft-
left-
handed.
handed.
Section 9.Summary p161 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig
Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
 SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 9
(continued 7) Vector Differential Calculus. Grad, Div, Curl

Some
Somebasic
basicformulas
formulasforforgrad,
grad,div,
div,curl
curlare
are(Secs.
(Secs.
9.7–9.9)
9.7–9.9) ( fg)  f g  gf
(13) ( f / g) (1/ g2 )(gff g)
(13)
div( ffv)  div v  v  f

(14) div( f g)  f 2g  f  g

(14)
2 ffdiv( )
(15) 2( fg) g2 ff 2  g  f 2g
(15)

Section 9.Summary p162 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
 SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 9
(continued 8) Vector Differential Calculus. Grad, Div, Curl

curl ( ffv)  v  f curl v

(16)
(16) div (uv) v  curl u  u  curl v

curl (f ) 0
(17)
(17) div (curl v) 0.
For grad, div, curl, and 2 in curvilinear coordinates
see App. A3.4.

Section 9.Summary p163 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.