5.

Charging of Electric
Vehicles Besides the autonomy, another important aspect is the duration and the characteristics of the charging process of the batteries. In
order for the EVs to definitely succeed, it will be necessary that the users can charge their vehicles in a fast and simple way. To do so, it Smart
Cities 2021, 4 386 will be fundamental to have an infrastructure deployment that allows such fast and simple charge. This implies charging at
homes, and the creation of electric charging stations that provide quick charges during long commuting. Below, the different standards or
rules that are created for electric vehicles charging technology are presented. In particular, we detail the different charging modes that are
defined in the current standards, as well as the connectors.
Connectors
Electric vehicles have an AC/DC converter that allows charging their batteries at home through the use of traditional outlets (e.g., the Schuko
in Europe). However, when requiring faster charges, Electric Vehicle Charging Stations must be used, since they can directly supply DC power
to the batteries. Charging Stations can supply electricity through different connectors, depending on the standard supported, and they
present the following advantages:
• They are sealed solutions (not affected by water or humidity).
• They carry a mechanic or electronic blockage. • They enable communication with the vehicle.
• Electricity is not supplied until the blockage system is not activated.
• While the blockage system is activated, the vehicle cannot be set in motion, so that a vehicle cannot leave while plugged.
• Some connectors are able to charge in three-phase mode.

There currently exists a wide range of connectors for charging electric vehicles. These connectors are defined by the different standards: the
Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) is in charge of its normalization in the US and in part of the Pacific countries; the IEC is responsible for its
standardization in a great part of the countries in the world, mainly in Europe; and, the Guobiao Standards (GB) manages the standardization in
China. J1772-2009 connectors include different protection levels, and they can even be used in rainy conditions. The AC version (see Figure 7a)
was designed for single-phase electric systems with 120 V or 240 V, and they consist of five pins:
• AC pins, two pins to provide power to the vehicle (phase and neutral).
• Ground connection, a security measure, which connects the electrical system to the ground.
• Proximity detection, which avoids the vehicle to move while plugged.
• Pilot Control, which allows communication with the vehicle.
7. Challenges of the Research and Open Opportunities
Although the development and evolution of the electric vehicles have undergone a great growth, especially in the last years, in this section we
comment on the aspects that are still pending, or that can be interesting to explore to propose new and enhanced solutions. We have classified
these opportunities into four fields: (i) the use of new batteries technologies or manufacturing processes, (ii) the improvement and optimization of
the charging process, (iii) the use of communications and Artificial Intelligence in electric vehicles for improving the mobility and for an efficient use
of the charging infrastructure, and, finally, (iv) eco charge (i.e., using green energy) and sustainability issues that are related to EVs.

New Challenges and Technologies in Batteries for Evs

Batteries are one the most important components of EVs, since they are one of the most costly components of the overall cost of the vehicle, the
improvement in terms of durability, in charging densities, and in the charge and discharge processes, have caused the use of multiple resources in
the development of new technologies that are able to surpass the current lithium-ion batteries, which are the ones massively used in vehicles. Some
of them are the following:
• Lithium iron phosphate (LiFePO4). This kind of battery presents an energy density of approximately 220 Wh/L, a great durability (they are able to
withstand between 2000 and 10,000 cycles) and tolerate high temperatures. However, although this type of battery is starting to be tested in EVs
[94], it still can be found in an early stage of research and development. MIT researchers have managed to reduce its weight and they have
developed a prototype-cell that can be completely charged in just 10–20 s, a reduced time if we compare it with the necessary 6 min. for standard
battery cells [95].
• Magnesium-ion (Mg-Ion). These batteries change the use of lithium over magnesium, succeeding in storing more than double the charge and
increasing its stability. It is expected that this type of battery can have a 6.2 kWh/L energy density [96], which would imply 8.5 times more than the
best lithium batteries, which are currently able to apply up to 0.735 kWh/L. Organizations, such as the Advanced Research Projects Agency-Energy
(ARPA-E), Toyota, or NASA, are investigating this type of battery [97,98]
Eco Charge and Sustainability Electric vehicles have appeared as a model of sustainability and respect to the environment, due to the fact they do
not emit harmful substances to the air, unlike conventional internal combustion vehicles. Such sustainability is not only limited to the usage of
hybrid or electric vehicles, but also their design, the prime materials used in the manufacturing of these vehicles, and the energy footprint during
its use, as well as the subsequent recycling of their components influencing the circles of sustainability.
Regarding the EV production, some studies consider that it can require more than twice as much energy to produce an electric car as
compared to a conventional one [128,129], especially due to the batteries production. More specifically, the mining and processing
minerals required to manufacture EV batteries (e.g., lithium, copper, cobalt, manganese, and rare earths like neodymium), as well as
battery manufacturing with current technology, requires from 350 to 650 Megajoules per kWh [129]. In addition, each kWh of battery
capacity involves from 150 to 200 kg of CO2 emissions. This means, for example, that producing a 22 kWh BMW i3 battery emits almost 3
tons of CO2.
As for the usage of EVs, one key point is the high amount of electricity that is required to charge these vehicles’ batteries, especially when they will
be widely deployed [130]. Moreover, such power demand would indirectly harm the environment, depending on the electric power source
generation. Although EVs do not emit climate-damaging greenhouse gases and NO2, the required electricity could be produced by fossil-fuel
power plants, and thus limit the supposed climate benefits. For example, almost half of the electricity generated in Germany comes from coal and
gas [132]. Hence, the use of renewable energies for manufacturing and charging electric vehicles is a key aspect. Especially for charges, this kind of
power (mainly the solar and wind power) could be stored to be used in high demand periods or for cheapening the charging prices [133–137].

Concerning the infrastructure that is needed for EVs deployment, and trying to propose more eco-friendly approaches, Bhatti et al. [138]
summarize all of the aspects related to EVs charging focusing on the use of solar photovoltaic modules. More specifically, they analyze the
requirements of grid powered photovoltaic EV charging, including its economic and environmental impact. Similarly, Calise et al. [139] present a
novel paradigm for sustainable mobility that is based on EVs, photovoltaic energy, and energy storage systems, including a comparison to the
conventional grid-to-vehicle approach. Particularly, they demonstrate that, during the summer, solar energy can cover an important amount of the
total energy demand.
Finally, electromobility could also present some drawbacks. The high sales of EVs, mainly in countries, such as Norway, is the result of
governments’ economic incentives. However, some of these incentives can have adverse effects (e.g., the exemption of toll charges has
significantly reduced toll revenue [141]). Moreover, there have been 3.6% less public transportation passengers than the same quarter last year,
according to the National statistical institute of Norway [142]. Although this issue might be due to several factors, we consider that these data can
be directly related to impressive growth of EV sales in this country, since EV economic advantages and higher comfort can result in a reduction of
public transport usage.
8. Conclusions
In this paper, we analyzed the types of EVs, the technology used, the advantages with respect to the internal combustion engine vehicles,
the evolution of sales within the last years, as well as the different charging modes and future technologies. We also detailed the main
research challenges and open opportunities.

Regarding EVs, batteries are a critical factor, as these will determine the vehicle’s autonomy. We analyzed several kinds of batteries,
according to these features. We also presented the possible technologies that can be used in the future, such as the graphene, which is
expected to be a solution that enables the storage of higher amounts of power, and charge in shorter periods of time. The EV could also
benefit from this type of technology, reaching higher ranges, something that could help its adoption by drivers and users.

The development of batteries with higher capacities will also favor the use of the fastest and most powerful charging modes, as well as
better wireless charging technologies. The creation of a unique connector that can be globally used is another aspect that could benefit the
deployment of electric vehicles. The EV will play a highly important role in the future Smart Cities, and having different charging strategies
that can adapt to the users’ needs will be of special relevance. Therefore, future BMS should consider the new scenarios that were
introduced by new batteries and Smart Cities requirements.