Knowledge Representation And

Reasoning
 Syllabus
• UNIT – I: The Key Concepts: Knowledge, Representation,
Reasoning, Why knowledge representation and
reasoning, Role of logic Logic: Historical background,
Representing knowledge in logic, Varieties of logic,Name,
Type, Measures, Unity Amidst diversity

• UNIT – II: Ontology: Ontological categories, Philosophical

background, Top-level categories, Describing physical
entities, Defining abstractions, Sets, Collections, Types
and Categories, Space and Time
• UNIT - III :Knowledge Representations: Knowledge
Engineering, Representing structure in frames, Rules and
data, Object-oriented systems, Natural language
Semantics, Levels of representation
• UNIT – IV: Processes: Times, Events and Situations,
Classification of processes, Procedures, Processes and
Histories, Concurrent processes, Computation, Constraint
satisfaction, Change Contexts: Syntax of
contexts,Semantics of contexts, First-order reasoning in
contexts, Modal reasoning in contexts, Encapsulating
objects in contexts.
• UNIT - V :Knowledge Soup: Vagueness, Uncertainty,
Randomness and Ignorance, Limitations of logic, Fuzzy
logic, Nonmonotonic Logic, Theories, Models and the world,
Semiotics Knowledge Acquisition and Sharing:Sharing
Ontologies, Conceptual schema, Accommodating multiple
paradigms, Relating different knowledge representations,
Language patterns, Tools for knowledge acquisition
• TEXT BOOKS:
• 1. Knowledge Representation logical, Philosophical, and
Computational Foundations by John F. Sowa,
• Thomson Learning.
• 2. Knowledge Representation and Reasoning by Ronald
J. Brachman, Hector J. Levesque, Elsevier.
 What we are going to study
• Unit I: Key Concepts
Learn foundational concepts of knowledge representation and
reasoning, the importance of logic, historical perspectives,
and the diversity of logical systems.
• Example: Using propositional logic to represent knowledge
like "If it rains, the ground will be wet" and reasoning to
conclude "The ground is wet because it rained."
• Unit II: Ontology
Explore the philosophical basis of ontology, categorize
entities, describe physical and abstract entities, and
understand space, time, sets, and collections.
• Example: Defining "Car" as a physical object with attributes
like brand, color, and engine type, and linking it to a category
"Vehicle" in a top-level hierarchy.
• Unit III: Knowledge Representations
Study frameworks for structuring knowledge using frames,
rules, object-oriented systems, and natural language
semantics across various representation levels.
• Example: Representing a student in a frame-based system
with slots for name, ID, and courses enrolled, or using natural
language semantics to process the sentence "The cat is on the
mat."
• Unit IV: Processes and Contexts
Understand processes like events, concurrent actions, and
computations, along with reasoning and encapsulating
knowledge within different contexts.
• Example: Representing a concurrent process like traffic lights
where different lights change state over time, or using
contexts like "In the context of physics, mass refers to inertia."
• Unit V: Knowledge Soup and Acquisition
Address vagueness, uncertainty, and
limitations of logic with advanced approaches
like fuzzy and nonmonotonic logic, and
explore methods for acquiring and sharing
knowledge effectively.
• Example: Using fuzzy logic to deal with vague
concepts like "It is somewhat warm today" or
creating a shared ontology to standardize
medical terms across different hospitals.
 What is Knowledge Representation and Reasoning?

• Knowledge Representation and Reasoning (KR&R)

enables computers to understand, organize, and
apply real-world information effectively using rules
for accurate decision-making.
 Knowledge, Representation, and
Reasoning
• Knowledge:
• Refers to the information and facts about the world
that a system needs to perform tasks effectively.
• This includes data, rules, concepts, relationships, and
general understanding of the domain or problem.
• Example: Knowing that "water boils at 100°C" or "a
car has four wheels."
• Representation:
• Involves structuring and organizing knowledge in a
way that computers can store, process, and use.
• Common methods include logical statements,
graphs, semantic networks, ontologies, or frames.
• Example: Representing a family tree with nodes
(individuals) and edges (relationships).
• Reasoning:
• The process of drawing conclusions, making
inferences, or solving problems using the
represented knowledge.
• This could involve deduction (logical reasoning),
induction (generalization), or abduction (hypothesis
generation).
• Example: Given "All humans are mortal" and “Ram
is human," reasoning concludes, “Ram is mortal."
 Also can state as
• Components of KR&R:
• Ontologies(Organized Knowledge) Provide a structured
framework of knowledge, defining a set of concepts and
categories that represent a subject.
• Example: "A cat is an animal, and animals are living things."
• Rules: Govern the logical framework within which AI
systems operate to derive reasoned conclusions.
• Example: "If it rains, take an umbrella."
• Semantics: Offer a deeper understanding of data through
meaningful interpretation and association.
• Example: Knowing that "Apple" can mean a fruit or a company
based on the sentence: "I ate an apple" vs. "Apple released a
new iPhone."
 Example
• Knowledge in Simple Terms:
• What is Knowledge?
Knowledge is when someone (like John)
understands and is sure about a fact or idea
(like "Mary will come to the party").
• Propositions:
A proposition is a statement that can be either
true or false, like "The sky is blue" or "Water
boils at 100°C."
• Knowing vs. Believing:
– Knowing means being sure that something is true.
– Believing means thinking something is true, but you might
not be completely certain or correct.
• Propositional Attitudes:
Verbs like "knows," "hopes," or "doubts" show how
someone feels about or relates to an idea or fact. For
example:
– "John knows that Mary will come to the party" means John
is sure.
– "John hopes that Mary will come to the party" means John
wants it to happen but isn't sure.
• What is Representation?
• Representation is the use of one thing (like a symbol,
image, or word) to stand for something else, making it
easier to understand, use, or communicate.
• Examples:
• A drawing of a burger represents a fast-food
restaurant.
• The number "7" or Roman numeral "VII" represents
the concept of the number seven.
• Symbols and Propositions:
• Symbols (like words, numbers, or drawings) are used
to stand for ideas, objects, or facts.
• Propositions are the ideas or facts that symbols represent.
– Example: The sentence "The sky is blue" is a proposition because
it represents the idea or fact that the sky has a blue color.
• Knowledge Representation:
• This is a specialized field where symbols are used to
represent:
• Facts (e.g., "The sky is blue.")
• Beliefs (e.g., "I believe it's going to rain.")
• Since not all beliefs or knowledge can be directly
represented, reasoning is applied. Reasoning helps connect
what is explicitly represented with additional information or
conclusions.
• Definition of Reasoning:
• Reasoning is manipulating symbols
representing beliefs or facts to form new
representations of knowledge.
• Symbols vs. Propositions:
• Symbols (like words or numbers) are easier to
manipulate than the abstract ideas they
represent.
• This allows us to move, combine, and rearrange
symbols to create new representations.
• Analogy with Arithmetic:
• Reasoning is similar to binary arithmetic, where we perform operations on
symbols.
• For example:
– In binary addition:
• Symbols "1011" + 10 result in "1101".
– In reasoning:
• We can combine sentences like "John loves Mary" and "Mary is
coming to the party" to infer "Someone John loves is coming to
the party."
• Logical Inference:
• Reasoning involves logical inference, where conclusions follow logically
from the initial sentences or facts. facts. a->b->c then a->c
• Gottfried Leibniz's Idea:
• The philosopher Gottfried Leibniz (17th century) proposed that reasoning
is a form of calculation — but instead of numbers, we manipulate symbols
representing propositions.
• Here’s an example illustrating Leibniz’s idea that
reasoning is like calculation using symbols:
• Propositions (Symbols):
– Let AAA: All humans are mortal.
– Let BBB: Socrates is a human.
• Logical Reasoning as Calculation:
Using the rule: If AAA and BBB, then CCC
(where CCC: Socrates is mortal),
we combine AAA and BBB to conclude CCC.
Key Points: Why Knowledge Representation
and Reasoning in AI?
• Understanding Behavior
• Knowledge helps describe the behavior of complex
systems (human or machine) using beliefs, desires,
goals, and intentions.
• Intentional Stance
• Describing a system’s behavior in terms of beliefs and
intentions is often more useful than technical details
(like algorithms).
• Helps us reason about the system’s actions intuitively
rather than focusing on low-level operations.
• Limitations of the Intentional Approach
• For simple systems an intentional description is
misleading and unnecessary.
• If you say, "The vending machine wants to make
customers happy," it’s misleading because the
vending machine has no desires or intentions.
• In reality, it simply follows a set of programmed
rules:"If a customer inserts money and selects a
product, dispense the product.“
 Knowledge Representation Hypothesis
• Example: Smart Door Lock System
• Symbolic Representation (for humans):
• The system stores a rule like:
– "If the correct passcode is entered, unlock the door."
This rule can be easily understood by a human as a
meaningful instruction.
• Influence on Behavior (system's decision-making):
• ⚙️The system automatically unlocks the door when
it detects the correct passcode, following the stored
rule.
• Knowledge-Based Systems
• In AI, we build knowledge-based systems
containing a Knowledge Base (KB) of symbolic
representations.
• These representations represent facts, beliefs, and
goals, shaping the system’s actions and reasoning.
• In Simple Terms:
• Knowledge Representation enables AI systems to
be interpretable, purposeful, and functionally
aligned with human understanding and reasoning
processes.
• Example: A Smart Home AI System
• Knowledge Base (KB) contains symbolic
representations:
– Facts: "If the temperature is below 18°C, turn on the
heater."
– ✅ Beliefs: "People like a warm living room."
– 🎯 Goals: "Maintain a comfortable room temperature."
• How it Shapes Actions and Reasoning:
– The system checks the current temperature.
– Based on its knowledge, it decides to turn on the
heater automatically to meet the goal of a warm
living room.
• 1.2.1 Knowledge-Based Systems
• A Knowledge-Based System (KBS) is a type of system that uses
stored knowledge (facts and rules) to make decisions or
inferences. Unlike regular programs that follow step-by-step
procedures, a KBS uses its knowledge to reason about the
world.
• For example, imagine a system that knows facts like:
• "A dog is a mammal."
• "A parrot is a bird."
• "A parrot can fly."
• And it also knows rules like:
• "If something is a bird, it can fly (except penguins)."
• Now, when we ask the system a question like, "Can a parrot
fly?" it can use its knowledge to answer "Yes," because it knows
parrots are birds and birds can fly (unless they're penguins).
• 1.2.2 Why Knowledge Representation?
• Adaptability: It helps the system handle new tasks it hasn't
seen before by using the knowledge it already has, making it
flexible for open-ended situations.
• Easy Extension: you can add new information to the system,
and it will automatically update its behavior without needing
to rewrite the whole system.
• Error Debugging: Faults can be traced back to incorrect
beliefs in the KB, simplifying troubleshooting.
• Explainability: The system’s actions can be explained by
linking them to the knowledge it uses, such as "grass is green
because vegetation is green.“
• Allows assimilation of new knowledge, The system can learn
new facts, like geography, and apply them to many different
tasks.
• 1.2.3 Why Reasoning?
• Logical Inference: Reasoning allows a system to make new conclusions based on
what it already knows.
• If the system knows "John is a student" and "Students study," it can reason that
"John studies.“
• Computational Issues :sometimes reasoning is not perfect because the system may
be too slow or might miss something.
• Example: If the system is too slow, it might not figure out that "John is tired" is
related to "John studied all night.“
• Conceptual Trade-offs: Sometimes the system makes assumptions based on what
it knows, even if it's not 100% certain.
•
Example: The system might assume "All birds can fly" even if it doesn't know for
sure whether a particular bird, like Tweety, can fly.
• Inconsistency Handling: If the system gets conflicting information, it will still reason
with what it has until it can figure out the contradictions.
•
Example: If one source says "John is allergic to nuts" and another says "John is not
allergic to nuts," the system will reason based on available facts and update when
it finds the truth.
 THE ROLE OF LOGIC
• Why Logic Matters for KRR: Logic is important
for knowledge representation and reasoning
(KRR) because it helps us understand how
knowledge is related (entailment) and how to
reason about it using rules and truth
conditions.
• Entailment: If you know "All humans are
mortal" and "Socrates is a human," logic
allows you to conclude that "Socrates is
mortal.“
• Reasoning: Using rules like "If it rains, the
ground gets wet," you can deduce the truth of
statements based on given conditions.
• First-Order Logic (FOL): The main language
we’ll use to represent knowledge is First-
Order Logic (FOL), which was created by
Gottlob Frege. FOL is widely used in AI for
structuring knowledge
• FOL is Just a Starting Point: First-order logic
(FOL) is the foundation for representing and
reasoning about knowledge, but there are other
logic types (like modal or fuzzy logic) and
knowledge representation languages that go
beyond FOL.
• Example: In FOL, you might represent "All birds
can fly" as ∀x(Bird(x) → CanFly(x)). But
exceptions like penguins require additional logic
or representation methods.
• Beyond Logic: While logic is useful for
reasoning, there are other ways of reasoning
that go beyond what logic alone can handle.
• Example: If you're unsure about the weather,
you might use probabilistic reasoning (e.g.,
"There's a 70% chance of rain") rather than a
strict logical conclusion.
• Adequacy at Each Level: At the knowledge
level, we care about how well the language
represents knowledge and its reasoning rules.
At the symbol level, we focus on how
efficiently the system can process and
compute the knowledge.
• Knowledge level: Representing "If someone is
a parent, they must have a child" using logical
rules like Parent(x) → ∃y(Child(y)).
• Using Logic for Analysis: First-Order Logic is
ideal for analyzing knowledge systems at the
knowledge level.
• Example: Using FOL to analyze a system where
"All students are enrolled in at least one
course" before considering how to implement
this rule in a database system.
• The Knowledge Level (Newell’s Idea): Allen Newell
suggests we can understand knowledge systems at two
levels:
1.Knowledge level: Focuses on how knowledge is
represented and what its rules of reasoning are.
• Example: Representing "If a person is a teacher, they
teach students" using a logical statement: Teacher(x) →
Teaches(x, students).
2. Symbol level: Deals with the technical side, like the
computer architecture and algorithms used to process the
knowledge.
• Example: Designing a program that implements the above
rule efficiently, ensuring quick retrieval and reasoning in a
knowledge-based system.
 Historical Background
• Knowledge and its representation have been
debated for over 2,000 years.
• In the 5th century B.C., Socrates questioned common
beliefs, claiming to know little while challenging
others on topics like Truth, Beauty, and Justice.
• His student, Plato, built on this through epistemology
—the study of knowledge and its justification.
Socrates' questioning had serious consequences; he
was sentenced to death for challenging accepted
beliefs, accused of impiety and corruption.
 TERMINOLOGY.
• Aristotle's Contribution: Aristotle shifted philosophy's
focus from the nature of knowledge to the practical
problem of representing it, laying the groundwork for
many fields, including logic, ethics, and biology.

• Terminology Invention: Aristotle invented and defined

terms to represent knowledge across various fields,
creating the foundational vocabulary for modern technical
discourse.
• Greek and Latin Influence: Many terms Aristotle
coined in Greek (e.g., category, metaphor,
hypothesis) were later translated into Latin,
which further influenced English terminology.
• Everyday Usage: Words like category and quality,
originally coined by Aristotle and later Latinized,
have become common in everyday language, far
beyond their philosophical origins.
 Syllogism
• Aristotle's Syllogism: Aristotle created a logical
method called the syllogism, which uses three
statements to reach a conclusion.
• Example:
• All mammals are warm-blooded.
• All whales are mammals.
• Therefore, all whales are warm-blooded.
• Major and Minor Premises: A syllogism combines
two premises—major (general statement) and
minor (specific statement)—to reach a conclusion.
• Formal Logic: Aristotle formalized syllogisms
with rules of inference, using variables to
represent general terms in logical deductions.
• Systematic Analysis: He created rules to
ensure truth is preserved when converting
one logical pattern into another.
• Legacy: Modern logic and programming
languages still rely on his ideas, like using
variables and structured reasoning.
• Here’s a simple example of a syllogism:
1.Major Premise: All mammals have hearts.
2.Minor Premise: A dog is a mammal.
3.Conclusion: Therefore, a dog has a heart.
 SCHOLASTIC loGIC.
• Propositions and Vowels: Scholastics categorized propositions
using vowels:
• A: All A is B (e.g., "All cats are mammals").
• I: Some A is B (e.g., "Some cats are black").
• E: No A is B (e.g., "No cats are reptiles").
• O: Some A is not B (e.g., "Some cats are not black").
• Basic Syllogism Patterns: They created logical patterns, such as:
• Barbara (AAA):
– All mammals are animals.
– All cats are mammals.
– Therefore, all cats are animals.
• Celarent (EAE):
– No reptiles are mammals.
– All snakes are reptiles.
– Therefore, no snakes are mammals.
• Logical Hierarchies: Patterns like Barbara
show inheritance (properties passing down
categories), while Celarent shows
exclusiveness (categories that cannot overlap).
• Scholastic Innovations: Thinkers like Peter of
Spain expanded Aristotle’s logic, paving the
way for developments in language and
reasoning systems.
• Semantic Networks:
• Semantic networks are graphic
representations of knowledge, developed in AI
to visually organize information.
• The first semantic network appeared in the
third century by Porphyry, showing Aristotle's
categories as a hierarchy of genus (supertype)
and species (subtype).
• Tree of Porphyry: Porphyry’s network, known
as the Tree of Porphyry, categorized
substances and species, with "substance" as
the highest genus and "human" as a species.
• It defined categories using genus (general
class) and differentiae (specific features).
• Inheritance and AI: The concept of
inheritance, used in AI and object-oriented
systems, builds on this method.
• For example, Living Thing is Human is a
rational, sensitive living thing.
• This inheritance system is fundamental to how
AI systems define categories.
• Ramon Lull’s Automated Reasoning: In the
13th century, Ramon Lull invented mechanical
devices for automated reasoning.
• His system, Ars Magna, merged logic and
theology, expanding on Porphyry’s tree by
adding Ens (Being) as the supertype of
Substance.
 MATHEMATICAL LOGIC
• Leibniz's Innovations: Leibniz, a 17th-century
thinker, combined math with logic, creating
binary arithmetic and applying it to reasoning.
• Universal Characteristic: He assigned prime
numbers to concepts
• (e.g., Substance = 2, Material = 3) and used
multiplication to combine them
• (e.g., Human = 2 × 3 × 7 × 13 × 19 = 10,374).
• Reasoning with Numbers: Leibniz used
division to test category relationships.
• Example: The number for "Human" is divisible
by "Body," showing all humans are bodies.
• However, "Human" is not divisible by
"Mineral," so humans are not minerals.
• Limitations: His system worked for simple
affirmations (like Barbara syllogisms) but
couldn't handle more complex logic, such as
negation, disjunction, or implication.
• Example:
• "All humans are bodies": Since 10,374
(Human) is divisible by 6 (Body), all humans
are bodies.
• "No humans are minerals": 10,374 (Human) is
not divisible by 66 (Mineral), so no humans
are minerals.
• T-Box and A-Box
• T-Box (Terminological Box):
– Represents the schema or structure of knowledge.
– Contains concepts (classes) and their relationships
(ontology).
– Defines rules and constraints, such as subclass
relationships, domain/range of properties, and
axioms.
– Example in ontology:
• Person ⊆ Mammal (A person is a type of mammal).
• Box (Assertional Box):
• Represents the facts or data about specific
instances.
• Contains assertions about individuals based
on the T-Box.
• Links individuals to concepts and properties.
• Example:
– John ∈ Person (John is an instance of the class
Person).
– hasAge(John, 30) (John has the age 30).
• Boolean Algebra
• Definition:
A branch of algebra that deals with binary variables and
logical operations. Developed by George Boole in the
mid-19th century.
• Basic Operations:
– AND (⋀ or ∧): Intersection/Conjunction.
– OR (⋁ or ∨): Union/Disjunction.
– NOT (¬): Negation.
– XOR: Exclusive OR.
– NOR, NAND, etc.: Combinations of NOT with OR/AND
• Frege's Begriffsschrift
• Begriffsschrift (Conceptual Notation):
– Introduced by Gottlob Frege in 1879 as a formal language for
pure thought.
– Aimed to represent logical reasoning with rigor and clarity, like
mathematics.
– Considered the precursor to predicate logic and modern formal
systems.
• Key Features:
– Quantifiers: Introduced the notions of "for all" (∀) and "there
exists" (∃).
– Logical Connectives: Defined negation, implication, etc.
– Function-Argument Analysis: Distinguished between functions
and arguments, forming the basis for modern logic.
• Algebraic Notation
• Definition:
A concise method of expressing mathematical
expressions, equations, or logical structures
using symbols and variables.
• Types:
– Classical Algebraic Notation: Using x,y,zx, y, zx,y,z,
and operators like +,−,∗,/+, -, *, /+,−,∗,/.
– Logic Algebraic Notation: Boolean operations,
predicate logic (P(x)→Q(x)P(x) → Q(x)P(x)→Q(x)).
– Abstract Algebra Notation: Groups, rings, fields
with operations like (a∗b)−1(a * b)^{-1}(a∗b)−1.
• 5. Representing Knowledge in Logic
• 1. Logic as a Universal Language
 Leibniz's Goal: Create a universal language using mathematical
principles to represent all knowledge and resolve disputes.
 Modern Logic: Achieves this partially, as it can represent any
precise, factual information in a computable form.
 Limitation: If knowledge cannot be expressed in logic, it cannot be
represented on a computer either.
 Example:
o Fact: Every cat is a mammal.

o Logic: For every x, if x is a cat, then x is a mammal:

(∀x)(cat(x)⇒mammal(x)).
• 2. Propositional Logic (Simplest Form)
• Represents knowledge using single symbols or
letters.
• Advantage: Simple and abstracts away details.
• Disadvantage: Lacks the ability to express internal
relationships.
• Example:
– Sentence: Every trailer truck has 18 wheels.
– Logic: PP (No further details about "trailer truck" or
"wheels").
• Use Case: Good for analyzing patterns, not details.
• 3. Subject and Predicate
• Breaks sentences into two parts: Subject
(what you're talking about) and Predicate
(what you're saying about it).
• Aristotle’s Syllogism: Combines subjects and
predicates logically.
– Example:
• All trailer trucks are 18-wheelers.
• Subject: All trailer trucks Predicate: are 18-wheelers
• Some Peterbilt is a trailer truck.
• Therefore, some Peterbilt is an 18-wheeler.
• 4. Predicate Logic (More Detailed Form)
• Represents relationships and internal
structure using variables and quantifiers (∀\
forall: for all, ∃\exists: there exists).
• Example:
– Sentence: Every trailer truck has 18 wheels.
– Logic:
(∀x)(trailerTruck(x)⇒numberOfWheels(x,18)).
– Meaning: For every x, if x is a trailer truck, then x
has 18 wheels.
• 5. Ontologies and Predicates
• Ontology: A detailed classification of objects and
their relationships.
• Domain-Dependent Predicates: Specific to the
topic (e.g., truck(x), wheel(x))
• Domain-Independent Predicates: General
relationships (e.g., part(x,y) x has y as a part).
• Example:
• Logic:
(hasWheel(car1,wheel1)∧hasWheel(car1,wheel2)∧
hasWheel(car1,wheel3)∧hasWheel(car1,wheel4))∧
(hasEngine(car1,engine1))
• This logic expresses that car1 has 4 wheels and 1
• 6. Logic and Other Fields (Music Example)
• Logic isn't the only way to represent
knowledge; specialized notations (like music)
are better for certain tasks.
• Example:
– Musicians prefer traditional notation, but logic is
useful for computer analysis.
• logic:
(∃x1​)(∃x2​)(tone(x1​,G)∧dur(x1​,1)∧next(x1​,x2​
)∧tone(x2​,A)).
• This logical formula means:
• There exists a tone x1 with pitch G and
duration 1 (possibly a quarter note).
• There exists a tone x2 with pitch A and a
relationship next(x1, x2), meaning x2 follows
x1.
• 7. Existential-Conjunctive (EC) Logic:
• EC Logic simplifies representation using:
– ∃ (Existence): Indicates the existence of something.
– ∧ (AND): Represents conjunction or "and" relationships.
• It's commonly used in databases and for analyzing specialized
systems.
• Limitation: It cannot express generalizations, negations, or
alternatives.
• Example:
• Fact: Certain musical intervals (like tritones) are dissonant.
• Logic: (∀x)(∀y)((tone(x,B)∧next(x,y))⇒¬tone(y,F))
– Meaning: If a note is B and the next note is y, then y cannot be F.
• Simplified:
• This logic states that if you have B followed by any note, that next
note cannot be F.
 Varieties of logic
• Variations in Logic:
Logic systems differ in six key areas:
• Syntax:
– Syntax refers to the way logic is written.
– Example: Different symbols like "∃" or "exists"
may be used, but the meaning remains the same.
– Example: Writing "∃x (Cat(x))" in mathematical logic
means the same as "There exists an x such that x is a cat"
in plain English. Both use different syntax but express the
same idea
• Subsets:
– Some logics simplify FOL by limiting features for
efficiency.
– Example: Prolog uses a restricted subset of FOL to
enhance speed.
– In simplified logic, you might say:
"If it rains, the ground is wet."
Without worrying about complicated expressions like "for all times and
places."

• Proof Theory:
– Variations allow or restrict how proofs are constructed.
– Example: Linear logic ensures every piece of information
is used exactly once.
– In linear logic, if you have one ticket for a train, you can use it
exactly once for travel.
In contrast, classical logic allows you to assume you can reuse the
ticket indefinitely, which isn’t realistic in some contexts.
• Model Theory:
– Adjusts truth values assigned to statements.
– Example: Classical FOL uses "true" or "false," while fuzzy
logic uses a range from 0 (false) to 1 (true).
– The light is on" could be 0.5 if it's dimly lit (partially on).
• Ontology:
– Adds predefined concepts to logic for specific domains.
– Example: A calendar app might use temporal logic to handle
concepts like "next Monday" or "5 PM tomorrow"
automatically.
• Metalanguage:
– Logic used to describe or modify other languages.
– Example: Context-free grammar is a subset of FOL used to
define programming languages.
– The rules that define how HTML tags (like <p> or <h1>) are used in a
web page can be described with a metalanguage like XML Schema.
• Typed Logic:
Typed logic simplifies FOL by labeling variables with types.
• Classical FOL: Example:

• (∀x)(trailerTruck(x)⇒eighteenWheeler(x))

• Typed logic becomes even more useful with multiple quantifiers,

making expressions clearer and less error-prone.
• Example with 18 wheels:

• (∀x:TrailerTruck)(∃s:Set)(s@18∧(∀w∈s)(wheel(w)∧part(x,w)))

• This means: "For every trailer truck, there exists a set of 18

wheels, where each wheel is part of the truck."
• Lambda Calculus
 Purpose: A formal system introduced by Alonzo Church to define and evaluate
functions and relations.
 Key Features:
o Lambda calculus uses λ\lambdaλ to define functions and operations.

o Scenario: You want to define a function that adds 2 to any number.

o Lambda Expression:

o λx.(x+2)

o This means: "A function that takes an input x and returns x+2

o Usage: To add 2 to 3, you apply the function to 3:

o (λx.(x+2))3=3+2=5

o Church-Rosser Theorem: Ensures consistent results regardless of the order of

expansion or contraction of lambda expressions.
• Scenario Example:
• You want to define a function that multiplies a number by 3.
• Lambda Expression:
• λx.(3 * x)
This represents a function that takes an input x and returns 3
times x.
• Usage Example:
• To multiply 4 by 3, you apply the function to 4:
• (λx.(3 * x)) 4 = 3 * 4 = 12
• Lambda calculus allows you to define and apply functions like
multiplication in a simple, symbolic way.
Conceptual Graphs (CGs)
•Purpose: A graphical representation of logical statements
that eliminates variables for simplicity.
•Components:
 Concept boxes (e.g., [TrailerTruck: ∀]) represent types
or entities.
 Relation circles (e.g., (Part)) represent relationships
between entities.
•Advantages:
 More intuitive than predicate logic for representing natural
language.
 Allows mappings to and from natural languages and
databases.
 Supports typed logic, which simplifies inferences via
inheritance of properties.
Example: "[TrailerTruck: ∀] → (Part) → [Wheel: {*}@18]"
represents "Every trailer
 Higher-Order Logic
• Higher-Order Logic is a branch of mathematics
that deals with reasoning and proving statements
about functions and predicates.
• # Key Concepts:
• Predicates
• A predicate is a statement that can be true or
false.
• For example:- "It is raining" (true or false)- "x is
greater than 5" (true or false for a given value of x)
• Functions
• A function is a relation between inputs and outputs.
• For example:- "Add 2 to x" (input: x, output: x+2)
• Higher-Order Functions
• A higher-order function is a function that takes
another function as input or returns a function as
output.
• For example:- "Take a function and apply it twice"
(input: function, output: function applied twice)
• # Example:
• Suppose we have a predicate "is_even(x)" that
checks if a number x is even..
• We can define a higher-order function
"check_property" that takes a predicate and a
list of numbers as input, and returns true if the
predicate is true for all numbers in the list.
• check_property(is_even, [2, 4, 6]) = true
• check_property(is_even, [2, 3, 6]) = false
• In this example, "check_property" is a higher-
order function because it takes a predicate
("is_even") as input.
• Benefits of Higher-Order Logic:
• 1. Abstraction: HOL allows us to abstract away from
specific details and focus on general properties and
relationships.
• 2. Modularity: HOL enables us to break down
complex problems into smaller, more manageable
pieces.
• 3. Reusability: HOL allows us to reuse functions and
predicates in different contexts, making it easier to
solve similar problems.
• Higher-Order Logic (HOL)
 Purpose: Extends first-order logic (FOL) by allowing
quantifiers to range over predicates and relations.
 Applications:

o Representation of meta-properties like the induction

axiom in arithmetic.
o Example of second-order logic:
∀P:Predicate(P(0)∧(∀n:Integer)
(P(n)⇒P(n+1))⇒∀n:IntegerP(n)).
• This is a second-order logic formula because it
quantifies over predicates (not just individual
variables).
• Meaning:
– P is a predicate (a property or condition).
– If P(0) is true (P holds for 0), and if for every
integer nnn, P(n) \implies P(n+1) (P holds for
n+1n+1n+1 whenever it holds for nnn),
– Then P must hold for all integers nnn.
• Induction Axiom
• The Induction Axiom states that for any
property P(x) of natural numbers, if the
following two conditions hold:
• 1. Base case: P(0) is true
• 2. Inductive step: For all natural numbers n, if
P(n) is true, then P(n+1) is also true
• Then, P(n) is true for all natural numbers n.
• # Symbolic Representation
• The Induction Axiom can be symbolically represented as:
• ∀P [P(0) ∧ ∀n (P(n) → P(n+1)) → ∀n P(n)]
• How Induction Axiom Works
• The Induction Axiom allows us to prove that a property
P(x) holds for all natural numbers x by:
• 1. Proving the base case P(0)
• 2. Proving the inductive step: assuming P(n) is true, prove
that P(n+1) is also true
• The Induction Axiom then guarantees that P(x)
holds for all natural numbers x.
• # ExampleSuppose we want to prove that the
formula 2n + 1 is odd for all natural numbers n.
• 1. Base case: 2(0) + 1 = 1, which is odd.
• 2. Inductive step: Assume 2n + 1 is odd.
• Then, 2(n+1) + 1 = 2n + 2 + 1 = (2n + 1) + 2,
which is also odd
• By the Induction Axiom, we conclude that 2n +
1 is odd for all natural numbers n.
• Comparison of Representations
1. Typed Predicate Logic:
o Uses variables explicitly.

o Example: ∀x:TrailerTruck(∃s:Set∧s@18∧(∀w∈s)
(wheel(w)∧part(x,w))).
2. Conceptual Graphs:
o Eliminates variables for readability.

o Graphically represents logical structure.

3. Knowledge Interchange Format (KIF):

o Designed for machine processing, with a restricted syntax.
 Names, Types, and Measures

• When logic is applied to mathematics, the

constants represent numerals, which act as
names of numbers. But in real-world
applications, a broader range of data is needed,
such as:
• Names of people and things (e.g., Tom,
Elephant)
• Types of things (e.g., cat, fish)
• Measures of things (e.g., height, weight)
• 1. Names
• In logic and knowledge representation, a
name refers to a specific individual.
• For example, "Bella" is a specific cat, a proper
name that refers to an individual entity.
• The sentence "Bella is a cat" connects a
proper name (Bella) with a type (Cat).
• Core Idea: Similar to the original example,
"Bella" directly identifies a unique individual
(the cat), while "Cat" represents the broader
category or type of animals.
• 2. Types
• A type is a more general category that includes
multiple entities.
• For example, "Elephant" represents the
species, not an individual.
• In typed logic, types are represented with
variables, such as:
• Formula: ('lix:Cat)('liy:Fish) like(x,y)
• This means: For every cat x and every fish y, x
likes y.
• 3. Measures
• In real-world knowledge representation,
measures often represent quantitative
properties, such as salary, height, weight.
• For example:
– Emma and Liam earn $50,000 per year.
– This should mean their salaries are numerically
the same, not that they share the same job or
paycheck.
– In computing systems, failing to distinguish
measures from individual entities can cause bugs.
• 1. Syllogism Fallacy:
• Syllogism Example:
– Premise 1: Clyde is an elephant (individual)
– Premise 2: "Elephant" is a species (type)
– Incorrect Inference: Therefore, Clyde is a species.
• This mistake arises because "Clyde" (a name)
and "Elephant" (a type) are mixed up.
• "Unity Amidst Diversity" in Logic 🧠
• The passage explains how different types of
logic have been developed over time.
• Even with various notations and approaches,
any good logic system must meet four core
features.
• Let's break down these features with simple
terms and examples.
• 2. Syntax 🔠 (Grammar Rules)
• Syntax refers to the rules for combining symbols to
form valid sentences.
• It's like grammar in language, ensuring everything
follows a structured format.
• Simple Syntax Rules:
• Symbols must follow a specific order to form correct
sentences.
• Example: Logical Sentence
• "p AND q" (in logical notation p ∧ q)
– Must follow proper order to form valid combinations.
• If you follow the syntax, you have well-formed,
understandable logical sentences.
• 3. Semantics 🔍 (Meaning and Truth)
• A logic system needs a way to associate symbols with real-world
meanings and determine whether statements are true or false.

• Key Components:
• Theory of Reference: Connects constants and variables to real-
world entities.
• Theory of Truth: Decides which sentences are correct or
incorrect.
• Example:
• In Alfred Tarski's theory (1935), we have truth tables that show:
• Statement
• Truth Value
• p AND q
• True/False (depends on the truth of 'p' and 'q')
• For example, if p = True and q = True, then p AND q = True.
• 4. Rules of Inference 🔄
• Inference means drawing logical conclusions based on existing
information. A good logic system must have:
• Two Types of Inference:
• Sound Inference ✅
• Ensures that conclusions preserve true statements according to
semantics.
• Non-monotonic Inference ⚠️
• Used in plausible or approximate reasoning but doesn't always preserve
strict truth.
• Example of Inference:
• Modus Ponens (A common inference rule):
– If "If p, then q" and p is true, then q must be true.
• Sentence Example:
• "If it rains, the ground will get wet."
• Inference: If rains = True, then ground_wet = True.
• Unity Amidst Diversity
• Despite the many notations and types of logic developed over time (like
Prolog, Fuzzy Logic, Modal Logic), they all follow these four core features:
• Feature
• Purpose
• Vocabulary
• For symbols representing entities and actions.
• Syntax
• Grammar to combine symbols into sentences.
• Semantics
• Determines meaning and truthfulness.
• Inference
• Rules for logical reasoning and conclusions.
• 🔧 Applications in Technology
• Prolog: Used in AI programming.
• SQL: Used in database queries but still has
logical semantics.
• AI Systems (Frames, Semantic Networks):
Have the same expressive power as first-
order logic.