UNIT I

General Principles of Instruments

1.1 Introduction
1.2 Basic Concepts of Measurement
1.3 Functional elements of an instrument system
1.4 Performance Characteristics
1.4.1 Static Characteristics
1.4.2 Dynamic Characteristics
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1.5 Noise and Error analysis
 Measurements
 Measurement: Comparison between a standard
and what we want to measure (the measurand).

 The device or instrument used for comparing the

unknown quantity with the unit of measurement or
a standard quantity is called a measuring
instrument. Because of modular nature of the
elements within it, it is common to refer the
measuring instrument as a Measurement System.
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 Basic requirements for a meaningful measurement
Standard is a value of some quantity which is setup
and established by authority as a rule for
measurement of a quantity.
Calibration: It is very widely used in industries. It is
the setting or correcting of a measuring device or a
base level usually by adjusting it to match or conform
to a dependably known value or act of checking or
adjusting the accuracy of a measuring instrument. 3
 Con...
 The standard used for comparison purposes must
be accurately defined and should be commonly
accepted.
 The apparatus used and the method adopted must
be provable (verifiable).

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Need for measurements or Why we want to measure?
 One is to generate data for design because
engineering and mechanical engineering mostly
concerns itself with making of things: design of
things and making of things or manufacturing
things. In this a lot of information is required in the
form of data regarding the mechanical behaviour,
thermal behaviour, and other behaviour of the
system and consultation. 5
Need for measurements or Why we want to measure?
 The second and more basic reason measurement is
undertaken is to generate data is to validate. That
means, there is already a theory proposed and
existing; to validate the theory we require a set
of data to be collected and experiments to be
performed.

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Need for measurements or Why we want to measure?
 There is a third aspect, which is also very important,
is measurement for commerce. We are quite aware
that whenever we go to shop or whenever we go out
and buy something, the commodity which we
measure or which we buy is going to have some
measurements. It may be a certain length of a piece
of a cloth, the width of the piece of the cloth or it
could be volume of some material like petrol or oil.
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Elements of Generalized Measurement System
 Primary Sensing Element: The quantity under
measurement makes its first contact with the
primary sensing element of a measurement system.
 Variable Conversion Element:
It converts the output of the primary sensing element
into suitable form to preserve the information
content of the original signal.
 Data Presentation Element:
The information about the quantity under
measurement has to be conveyed to the personnel
handling the instrument or the system for
monitoring, control or analysis purpose.
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Elements of Generalized Measurement System

PRIMARY VARIABLE VARIABLE DATA DATA

QUANTITY SENSING CONVER MANIPULATI- TRANSMISSIO- PRESENTA
TO BE -SION ELEMENT ON ELEMENT N ELEMENT TION ELEMENT
MEASURED ELEMENT

DATA CONDITIONING ELEMENT

TERMINATING
DETECTOR INTERMEDIATE STAGE STAGE
TRANSDUCER STAGE

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Classification of Instruments
The measuring instruments may be classified as follows :

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Absolute and Secondary Instruments
1. Absolute Instruments
The instruments of this type give the value of the measurand in terms of
instrument constant and its deflection. Such instruments do not require
comparison with any other standard. Absolute instruments are mostly
used in standard laboratories and in similar institutions as standardizing.
2. Secondary Instruments
These instruments are so constructed that the deflection of such
instruments gives the magnitude of the electrical quantity to be
measured directly.
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These instruments are required to be calibrated by
comparison with either an absolute instrument or with
another secondary instrument, which has already been
calibrated before the use. These instruments are generally
used in practice.
Ass 1
Secondary instruments are further classified as
i.Indicating instruments
ii.Integrating instruments
iii.Recording instruments 12
 Analog and Digital Instruments
1. Analog Instruments
The signals of an analog unit vary in a continuous fashion and can take
on infinite number of values in a given range. Fuel gauge, ammeter and
voltmeters, wrist watch, speedometer fall in this category.
2. Digital Instruments
Signals varying in discrete steps and taking on a finite number of
different values in a given range are digital signals and the
corresponding instruments are of digital type. Digital instruments have
some advantages over analog meters, in that they have high accuracy
and high speed of operation. It eliminates the human operational errors.
Digital instruments can store the result for future purposes. A digital13
Mechanical, Electrical and Electronics Instruments
1. Mechanical Instruments
Mechanical instruments are very reliable for static and stable
conditions. They are unable to respond rapidly to the
measurement of dynamic and transient conditions due to the
fact that they have moving parts that are rigid, heavy and
bulky and consequently have a large mass. Mass presents
inertia problems and hence these instruments cannot faithfully
follow the rapid changes which are involved in dynamic
instruments. Also, most of the mechanical instruments causes
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Advantages of Mechanical Instruments
• Relatively cheaper in cost
• More durable due to rugged construction
• Simple in design and easy to use
• No external power supply required for operation
• Reliable and accurate for measurement of stable and time invariant
quantity
Disadvantages of Mechanical Instruments
• Poor frequency response to transient and dynamic measurements
• Large force required to overcome mechanical friction
• Incompatible when remote indication and control needed
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• Cause noise pollution
2. Electrical Instruments
When the instrument pointer deflection is
caused by the action of some electrical methods
then it is called an electrical instrument.
The time of operation of an electrical instrument
is more rapid than that of a mechanical
instrument. Unfortunately, an electrical system
normally depends upon a mechanical
measurement as an indicating device.
This mechanical movement has some inertia
due to which the frequency response of these
instruments is poor.
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3. Electronic Instruments
Electronic instruments use semiconductor devices. Most of
the scientific and industrial instrumentations require very
fast responses. Such requirements cannot be met with by
mechanical and electrical instruments. In electronic devices,
since the only movement involved is that of electrons, the
response time is extremely small owing to very small inertia
of the electrons. With the use of electronic devices, a very
weak signal can be detected by using pre-amplifiers and
amplifiers. 17
Advantages of Electrical/Electronic Instruments
• Non-contact measurements are possible
• These instruments consume less power
• Compact in size and more reliable in operation
• Greater flexibility
• Good frequency and transient response
• Remote indication and recording possible
Amplification produced greater than that produced in
mechanical instruments
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Manual and Automatic Instruments
In case of manual instruments, the service of an operator is
required. For example, measurement of temperature by a
resistance thermometer incorporating a Wheatstone bridge in
its circuit, an operator is required to indicate the temperature
being measured.
In an automatic type of instrument, no operator is required all
the time. For example, measurement of temperature by
mercury-in-glass thermometer.

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Self-operated and Power-operated Instruments
Self-operated instruments are those in which no outside
power is required for operation. The output energy is
supplied wholly or almost wholly by the input measurand.
Dial indicating type instruments belong to this category.

The power-operated instruments are those in which some

external power such as electricity, compressed air, hydraulic
supply is required for operation.

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Deflection and Null Output Instruments
Deflection-type instrument
In a deflection-type instrument, the deflection of the
instrument indicates the measurement of the unknown
quantity. The measurand quantity produces some physical
effect which deflects or produces a mechanical displacement
in the moving system of the instrument. An opposite effect is
built in the instrument which opposes the deflection or the
mechanical displacement of the moving system.
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Spring scale as a deflection instrument. Scale has to be calibrated
The deflection or the mechanical displacement
at this point gives the value of the unknown
input quantity. 22
These type of instruments are suited for measurement under
dynamic condition. Permanent Magnet Moving, Moving
Iron , etc.,type instruments are examples of this category.
Advantages:
• high dynamic response i.e. can be used for fast
measurements
• can be designed for either static or dynamic
measurements or both
 Disadvantages:
• by deriving its energy from the measurand, the act of
measurement will influence the measurand and change
the value of the variable being measured. This change
is called a loading error.
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Null-type instruments
In null-type instruments, a zero or null indication
leads to determination of the magnitude of the
measurand quantity. The null condition depends
upon some other known conditions. These are more
accurate and highly sensitive as compared to
deflection-type instruments. A dc potentiometer is a
null- type instrument.
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1.Two inputs are essential to the null instrument
2. automatic or manual feedback system that allows the comparison of
known standard value,
3. an iterative balancing operation using some type of comparator
4. and a null deflection at parity

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 METHODS OF MEASUREMENT
 Direct comparison methods
 Indirect comparison methods

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I. Direct Comparison Methods
In direct measurement methods, the unknown quantity is
measured directly. Direct methods of measurement are of two
types, namely, deflection methods and comparison methods.
In deflection methods, the value of the unknown quantity is
measured by the help of a measuring instrument having a
calibrated scale indicating the quantity under measurement
directly, such as measurement of current by an ammeter.

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 In comparison methods, the value of the unknown quantity
is determined by direct comparison with a standard of the
given quantity, such as measurement of emf by comparison
with the emf of a standard cell.
Comparison methods can be classified as null methods,
differential methods, etc.
In null methods of measurement, the action of the unknown
quantity upon the instrument is reduced to zero by the
counter action of a known quantity of the same kind, such
as measurement of weight by a balance, measurement of
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resistance, capacitance, and inductance by bridge circuits.
II. Indirect Comparison Methods
In indirect measurement methods, the comparison is done with a
standard through the use of a calibrated system. These methods for
measurement are used in those cases where the desired parameter to be
measured is difficult to be measured directly, but the parameter has got
some relation with some other related parameter which can be easily
measured.
For instance, the elimination of bacteria from some fluid is directly
dependent upon its temperature. Thus, the bacteria elimination can be
measured indirectly by measuring the temperature of the fluid. In
indirect methods of measurement, it is general practice to establish an
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empirical relation between the actual measured quantity and the desired
 Applications of measurements
1. Application of theory
• Learn to verify a theoretical model or to verify/modify it by
conducting experiments.
• Develop ability to apply some basic principle in a variety of
engineering studies-interdisciplinary approach.
2. Techniques of experimentation
• Become acquainted with available experimentation.
• Learn to interpret experimental data.
• Develop competence in sampling data. 30
3. Communication and reporting
• Learn to organize and direct experimental team.
• Learn procedures and develop abilities in report writing.
•Learn to support conclusions and recommend improvements.

4. Professional
• Provide examples of experimental research and development.
• Develop competence in applying engineering judgment. Hence
considering the above, it can be concluded that measurements are quite
essential in the design of a component.
• A process to be operated with minimum cost having maximum
efficiency. 31
Measurement Error Analysis
Error may be defined as the difference between the
measured value and the true value. No measurement can be
made without errors at all times i.e. 100% accurate
measurements cannot be made at all times.
Instrument Characteristics (Behaviour)
The instrument and measurement system characteristics can
be divided into two distinct categories-
1. Static characteristics 2. Dynamic characteristics
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1. Static characteristics:
• Pertain to a system where quantities to be measured, are
constant or vary very slowly with time.
• Normally static characteristics of a measurement system
are those that must be considered when the system\
equipment is used to measure a condition not varying with
respect to time.
Static Characteristics are
Accuracy - Static Error - Drift
Reproducibility -Sensitivity -Dead Zone 33
 Accuracy : Accuracy of a measuring system is defined as
the closeness of the instrument output to the true value of
the measured quantity.
Accuracy of the instrument can be specified in
% of true value = measured value – true value X100
True value
 Precision: Precision is defined as the ability of the
instrument to reproduce a certain set of readings within a
given accuracy. 34
Accuracy vs Precision :
Accuracy represents the degree of correctness of the measured
value with respect to the true value.
Precision represents the degree of repeatability of several
independent measurements of the desired input at the same
reference conditions.

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 Static Error: Static Error of an instrument is the difference
between the true value of a quantity not changing with time and
the value indicated by the instrument.
 True Value + Static Error = Instrument Reading
 Static Error is expressed as ‘ +x ‘ Units or ‘ –x ‘Units ,for plus
Static Error the instrument reads high, and for minus static
error the instrument reads low.
Static Correction of an instrument reading is specified in units.

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True Value = Instrument Reading + Static Correction.
Static Correction = - Static Error.
Error calibration means that an industrial instrument has been
especially calibrated against a suitable standard and its static
error determined at a number of points of its scale.
Reproducibility: The Reproducibility of an instrument is
the degree of closeness with which a given value may be
repeatedly measured. Reproducibility may be specified in
terms of units for a given period of time. Prefect
Reproducibility means that the instrument has no drift. 37
 Drift may occur in thermocouples and resistance-
thermometer elements because of contamination of the
metal and changes in metallurgical or atomic structure.
Drift occurs in orifice flow meters because of wear and
erosion of the orifice plate.
Drift is an insidious quality in industrial instruments,
because it is rarely apparent and must be carefully
guarded against by continuous inspection and
maintenance.
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 SENSITIVITY:
Sensitivity may mean that the instrument produces a given
deflection for a given changes in value of a measured
quantity. Usually Sensitivity denotes the smallest change
in value of a measured variable to which an instrument
responds. i.e the instrument has a dead zone.
 DEAD ZONE:
Dead Zone is the largest range of values of measured
variable to which the instrument does not respond.
Dead Zone usually occurs with friction in an indicating or
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recording instrument.
II.DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS:

Pertain to a system where quantities to be measured vary

rapidly with time.
The dynamic behaviour of an instrument is determined by
subjecting its primary element to some known and
predetermined variation in measured quantity.
Three most common variations are:
1.Step Change: In which the primary element is subjected to
an instantaneous and finite change in measured variable.
2.Linear Change: In which the primary element is
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”following” measured variable, changing linearly with time.
3.Sinusoidal Change: In which the primary element
follows a Measured variable, the magnitude of which
changes in accordance with a sinusoidal function of constant
amplitude.
Dynamic characteristics are :
Speed of Response - Lag
Fidelity - Dynamic Error
Speed of Response: Speed of Response is the rapidity with
which an instrument responds to changes in the measured
quantity. 41
 Measuring Lag: Measuring Lag is a retardation or delay
in the response of an instrument to changes in the
measured quantity.
 Fidelity: Fidelity is the degree to which an instrument
indicates the changes in measured variable without
dynamic error.
 Dynamic Error: Dynamic Error is the difference
between the true value of a quantity changing with time
and the value indicated by the instrument if no static error
is assumed. 42
TYPES OF ERRORS:

I.Systematic or Cumulative Error:

Systematic errors:
• Generally the it will be constant / similar form /recur
consistently every time measurement is measured.
• May result from improper condition or procedures
employed.

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Systematic or fixed errors:
(a) calibration errors
(b) Certain types of consistently recurring human errors
(c) Errors of technique
(d) Uncorrected loading errors
(e) Limits of system resolution Systematic errors are
repetitive & of fixed value. They have a definite magnitude
& direction

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II. Accidental or Random Errors:
Inconsistencies associated with accurate measurement of
small quantities.
Presence of certain system defects
Effect of undertrained and randomly varying parameters.
Random or Accidental errors:
(a) Errors stemming from environmental variations
(b) Certain types of human errors
(c) Due to Variations in definition
(d) Due to Insufficient sensitivity of measuring system 45
III. Miscellaneous Type or Gross Errors:
Personal or human errors or Human errors : are due to
variation of physical & mental states of a person which may
lead to systematic or random errors.
Error due to faulty components / adjustments/Errors of
technique: are due to improper usage of measuring apparatus.
This may include errors resulting from incorrect design,
fabrication or maintenance.
Improper application of the instrument/Loading errors :
result from influence exerted by the act of measurement on the
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Sources of errors:
(1) Noise: It is defined as any signal that does not convey useful information.
(2) Design limitations: These are certain inevitable factors such as friction &
resolving power which lead to uncertainty in measurements.
(3) Response time: It is the time lag between the application of input signal & output
measurement.
4) Deterioration of measuring system: Physical and/or chemical deterioration or other
alterations in characteristics of measuring system constitute a source of error in
measurement.
(5) Environmental effects: The change in atmospheric temperature may alter the
elastic constant of a spring, the dimensions of a linkage, electrical resistance etc.
similarly other factors such as humidity, pressure etc. also affect measurements.
(6) Errors in observation & Interpretation:It is the mistake of operators in observing,
interpreting & recording the data. 47