Muhammad Ibne Amin

MS Electronic Engineering (ISRA University Islamabad)

M.Sc. Electronics (Quaid-i-Azam University Islamabad)

Email : [email protected]
Course Tittle: Applied Physics

Recommended Book
Fundamentals of Physics 10th Edition
By
Halliday, Resnick and Walker
 Marks Distribution
For International Islamic
University

Quiz, 2.5 marks each, Frequency = 4

Assignment, 2.5 marks each, Frequency = 4
Midterm Exam, 20 marks, Frequency = 1
Final term, 60 marks, Frequency = 1
 Course Objectives:
This course has been designed to provide students with a
thorough understanding of the basic concepts of
Electromagnetism and optics, employment of mathematical
analysis. To sharpen our students' mathematical competency
making them capable of modeling, analyzing and predicting the
behavior of physical processes.
 Course Description
The topics covered in this course include: charge,
current, resistance, Columbs Law of
electrostatic charges, Electric Field due to various
distribution of charges, Gauss Law, Electric Potential
due to various distribution of charges, Amperes Law,
Faradays Law, Lenz’s Law Electromagnetism, Laws of
Reflection and Refraction, Interference, Diffraction
and Polarization of light waves
 Course Learning Outcomes:
1) Understanding basic principles Charge, Current, Electric Field
2) Describe the Electric Potential, Amper’s Law Faraday Laws of
Electromagnetic Induction
3) Illustrate Optics Laws, Diffraction and Interference Phenomenon.
 Program Learning Outcomes:
o The ability to utilize logic, mathematics, and physical
sciences to model and solve Computer science /Software
engineering problems.
o The ability to think critically, perform scientific analysis and
develop solutions for typical Computer science/ /Software
engineering problems.
Chapter 21 Electric Charge

Key contents

Electromagnetism
(Electricity + Magnetism)
Electric charge
Conductors
Coulomb’s law
Charge is quantized.
Charge is conserved.
21.2 Electric Charge:

Electric charge has two different signs.

Charges with the same electrical sign

repel each other, and charges with the
opposite electrical signs attract each
other.
21.3 Conductors and Insulators

The properties of conductors and insulators

are due to the structure and electrical nature
of atoms.

Atoms consist of positively charged

protons, negatively charged electrons, and
electrically neutral neutrons. The protons
and neutrons are packed tightly together in
a central nucleus.

When atoms of a conductor come together

to form the solid, some of their outermost
(and so most loosely held) electrons
become free to wander about within the
solid, leaving behind positively charged
atoms ( positive ions).We call the mobile
electrons conduction electrons.
There are few (if any) free electrons in a
nonconductor.
21.3 Conductors and Insulators

Conductors are materials through which charge can move freely;

examples include metals (such as copper in common lamp wire),
the human body, and tap water.

Nonconductors—also called insulators—are materials through

which charge cannot move freely; examples include rubber,
plastic, glass, and chemically pure water.

Semiconductors are materials that are intermediate between

conductors and insulators; examples include silicon and
germanium in computer chips.

Superconductors are materials that are perfect conductors,

allowing charge to move without any hindrance.
21.4 Coulomb’s Law

The equation giving the electrostatic

force for charged particles is called
Coulomb’s law:

The SI unit of charge is the coulomb.

The electrostatic constant is

The quantity 0 is called the

permittivity constant
21.4 Coulomb’s Law

The unit coulomb (C) is derived from the SI unit

ampere (A) of the electric current. Current is the rate
dq/dt at which charge moves past a point or through a
region

Therefore,
21.4 Coulomb’s Law

If there are n charged particles, they interact independently in pairs, and the
force on any one of them, say particle 1, is given by the vector sum

As with gravitational force law, the shell theorem has analogs in

electrostatics:
Example, The net force due to two other particles:

Fig. 21-8 (a) Two charged particles of

charges q1 and q2 are fixed in place on
an x axis. (b) The free-body diagram for
particle 1, showing the electrostatic
force on it from particle 2.
Example, The net force due to two other particles, cont.:

Fig. 21-8 (c) Particle 3

included. (d) Free-body
diagram for particle 1.
Example, The net force due to two other particles, cont.:

Fig. 21-8 (e) Particle 4 included. (f ) Freebody

diagram for particle 1.
Example, Equilibrium of two forces:

The equilibrium at x=2Lis unstable; that is, if

the proton is displaced leftward from point R,
then F1 and F2 both increase but F2 increases
more (because q2 is closer than q1), and a net
force will drive the proton farther leftward. If
the proton is displaced rightward, both F1 and
F2 decrease but F2 decreases more, and a net
force will then drive the proton farther
rightward. In a stable equilibrium, if the proton
is displaced slightly, it returns to the
equilibrium position.
Example, Charge Sharing: (1) Since the spheres are identical, connecting them means
that they end up with identical charges (same sign and
same amount). (2) The initial sum of the charges
(including the signs of the charges) must equal the final
sum of the charges.
Reasoning: When the spheres are wired together, the
(negative) conduction electrons on B move away from one
another (along the wire to positively charged A— Fig. 21-
10b.)

As B loses negative charge, it becomes positively charged,

and as A gains negative charge, it becomes less positively
charged. The transfer of charge stops when the charge on
B has increased to Q/2 and the charge on A has decreased
to Q/2, which occurs when Q/2 has shifted from B to A.

The spheres, now positively charged, repel each other.

Fig. 21-10 Two small conducting spheres A and B.

(a) To start, sphere A is charged positively. (b)
Negative charge is transferred from B to A through
a connecting wire. (c) Both spheres are then
charged
positively.
Example, Charge Sharing, cont.:

Reasoning: When we provide a conducting

path between a charged object and the ground
(which is a huge conductor), we neutralize the
object.

Were sphere A negatively charged, the mutual

repulsion between the excess electrons would
cause them to move from the sphere to the
ground.

However, because sphere A is positively

charged, electrons with a total charge of Q/2
move from the ground up onto the sphere
Fig. 21-10 (d) Negative charge is transferred (Fig. 21-10d), leaving the sphere with a
through a grounding wire to sphere A. (e) Sphere charge of 0 (Fig. 21-10e). Thus, there is
A is then neutral. (again) no electrostatic force between the two
spheres.
21.5 Charge is Quantized

Since the days of Benjamin Franklin, our understanding of

of the nature of electricity has changed from being a type of
‘continuous fluid’ to a collection of smaller charged particles.
The total charge was found to always be a multiple of a certain
elementary charge, “e”:

The value of this elementary charge is one of the fundamental

constants of nature, and it is the magnitude of the charge
of both the proton and the electron. The value of “e” is:

(Millikan’s oil drop experiment in 1909)

21.5 Charge is Quantized

# Quarks have charge of ± ⅓ e or ± ⅔ e, but they never

appear individually (color confinement).
21.5 Charge is Quantized

Many descriptions of electric charge use

terms that might lead you to the conclusion
that charge is a substance. Phrases like:

“Charge on a sphere”
“Charge transferred”
“Charge carried on the electron”

However, charge is a property of particles,

one of many properties, such as mass.
Example, Mutual Electric Repulsion in a Nucleus:
21.6 Charge is Conserved
The hypothesis of conservation of charge has stood up under close
examination, both for large-scale charged bodies and for atoms, nuclei, and
elementary particles.

Example 1: Radioactive decay of nuclei, in which a nucleus transforms into

(becomes) a different type of nucleus.
A uranium-238 nucleus (238U) transforms into a thorium- 234 nucleus (234Th)
by emitting an alpha particle. An alpha particle has the same makeup as a
helium-4 nucleus, it has the symbol 4He. Here the net charge is 9290+2.

Example 2: An electron e- (charge -e) and its antiparticle, the positron e+

(charge +e), undergo an annihilation process, transforming into two gamma
rays (high-energy light):. Here the net charge is 00.

Example 3: A gamma ray (in a certain environment) transforms into an

electron and a positron. Here the net charge is again 00.
There will be a Quiz in upcoming
Class/Lecture.