Mechanics of Soil (CE2021)

Lecture – 2
Formation of Soil and it’s type

Dr. Soukat Das

Assistant Professor
National Institute of Technology Rourkela

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 Rock Cycle

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 Rock Cycle

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 Origin of soils

Soils are formed by weathering of rocks due to mechanical disintegration or chemical

decomposition. When a rock surface gets exposed to atmosphere for an significant time, it
disintegrates or decomposes into small particles and thus the soils are formed.

The geologic cycle consists of erosion, transportation, deposition and upheaval of soil.

Figure: Geologic Cycle

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 Residual vs Transported soil

Exposed rocks are eroded and degraded by various physical and chemical processes. The
products of erosion are picked up by agencies of transportation, such as water and wind, and
are carried to new locations where they are deposited.

If the soil stays at the place of its formation just above the parent rock, it is known as residual
soil or sedentary soil. The engineering properties vary considerably from the top layer to the
bottom layer. It has a gradual transition from relatively fine material near the surface to large
fragments of stones at greater depth. The properties of the bottom layer resemble that of the
parent rock in many respects. The thickness of soil formation is limited to a few metres.

When the soil has been deposited at a place away from the place of its origin, it is called a
transported soil. The engineering properties of transported soils are entirely different from the
properties of the rock at the place of deposition. Deposits of transported soils are quite thick
and are usually uniform. Most of the soil deposits with which a geotechnical engineer has to
deal are transported soils.
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 Physical disintegration and Chemical decomposition of rocks.

Soils are formed by either (A) physical disintegration or (B) chemical decomposition of
rocks.
A. Physical Disintegration - Physical disintegration or mechanical weathering of rocks
occurs due to the following physical processes:
(1) Temperature changes - Different minerals of a rock have different coefficients of thermal
expansion.
(2) Wedging action of ice - As the volume of ice formed is more than that of water, expansion
occurs.
(3) Spreading of roots of plants - As the roots of trees and shrubs grow in the cracks and
fissures of the rocks, forces act on the rock.
(4) Abrasion - As water, wind and glaciers move over the surface of rock, abrasion and
scouring takes place.

In all the processes of physical disintegration, there is no change in the chemical composition.
The soil formed has the properties of the parent rock. Coarse grained soils, such as gravel and
sand,
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disintegration.
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 Physical disintegration and Chemical decomposition of rocks.

B. Chemical Decomposition - The soils formed do not have the properties of the parent rock.
The following chemical processes generally occur in nature.
(1) Hydration - In hydration, water combines with the rock minerals. The chemical reaction
causes a change in volume and decomposition of rock into small particles.
(2) Carbonation - carbon dioxide in the atmosphere combines with water to form carbonic
acid. The carbonic acid reacts chemically with rocks and causes their decomposition.
(3) Oxidation - oxygen ions combine with minerals in rocks. Oxidation results in
decomposition of rocks. Oxidation of rocks is somewhat similar to rusting of steel.
(4) Solution - Some of the rock minerals form a solution with water when they get dissolved
in water. Chemical reaction takes place in the solution and the soils are formed.
(5) Hydrolysis - water gets dissociated into H + and OH - ions. The hydrogen cations replace
the metallic ions such as calcium, sodium and potassium in rock minerals.

Chemical decomposition of rocks results in formation of clay minerals. These clay minerals
impart plastic properties to soils.
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 Transportation of Soils

The soils formed at a place may be transported to other places be agents of transportation,
such as water, wind, ice and gravity.
(1) Water transported Soils - Fast running water carries a large quantity of soil either in
suspension or by rolling along the bed. The fast water can carry the particles of large size
such as boulders and gravels. With a decrease in velocity, the coarse particles get deposited.
The finer particles are carried further downstream and are deposited when the velocity
reduces. A delta is formed when the velocity slows down to almost zero at the confluence
with a receiving body of still water, such as a lake, a sea or an ocean.

Figure: Alluvial Deposits

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 Transportation of Soils

All type of soils carried and deposited by water are known as alluvial deposits. Deposits
made in lakes are called lacustrine deposits and are laminated or varved in layers. Marine
deposits are formed when the flowing water carries soils to ocean or sea.
(2) Wind transported Soils - The particle size of the soil depends upon the velocity of wind.
The finer particles are carried far away from the place of the formation. A dust storm gives a
visual evidence of the soil particles carried by wind. Soils deposited by wind are known as
aeolian deposits.
Large sand dunes are formed by winds and occur in arid regions and on the leeward side of
sea with sandy beaches.
Loess is a silt deposit made by wind. These deposits have low density and high
compressibility. The bearing capacity of such soils is very low. The permeability in the
vertical direction is large.

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 Transportation of Soils

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 Transportation of Soils

(3) Glacier-Deposited Soils - Soils get mixed with the ice and are transported far away from
their original position. Drift is a general term used for the deposits made by glaciers directly
or indirectly. Deposits directly made by movement of glaciers are called till.
During their advancement, glaciers transport soils. At the terminus, a melting glacier drops
the material in the form of ridges, known as terminal moraine. The land which was once
covered by glaciers and on which till has been deposited after melting is called ground
moraine. The soil carried by the melting water from the front of a glacier is termed outwash
which is sorted.
Glaciofluvial deposits are formed by glaciers. The material is moved by glaciers and
subsequently deposited by streams of melting water.

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 Transportation of Soils

(4) Gravity-deposited soils - Soils can be transported through short distances under the action
of gravity. Rock fragments and soil masses collected at the foot of the cliffs or steep slopes
had fallen from higher elevation under the action of the gravitational force. Colluvial soils,
such as talus, have been deposited by the gravity.

(5) Soils transported by combined action - Sometimes, two or more agents of transportation
act jointly and transport the soil.

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 Names of Some Soils that are Generally Used in Practice

Bentonite is a clay formed by the decomposition of volcanic ash with a high content of
montmorillonite. It exhibits the properties of clay to an extreme degree.
Varved Clays consist of thin alternating layers of silt and fat clays of glacial origin. They
possess the undesirable properties of both silt and clay. The constituents of varved clays were
transported into fresh water lakes by the melted ice at the close of the ice age.
Kaolin, China Clay are very pure forms of white clay used in the ceramic industry.
Boulder Clay is a mixture of an unstratified sedimented deposit of glacial clay, containing
unsorted rock fragments of all sizes ranging from boulders, cobbles, and gravel to finely
pulverized clay material.
Calcareous Soil is a soil containing calcium carbonate. Such soil effervesces when tested
with weak hydrochloric acid.
Marl consists of a mixture of calcareous sands, clays, or loam.
Hardpan is a relatively hard, densely cemented soil layer, like rock which does not soften
when wet. Boulder clays or glacial till is also sometimes named as hardpan.

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 Names of Some Soils that are Generally Used in Practice

Caliche is an admixture of clay, sand, and gravel cemented by calcium carbonate deposited
from ground water.
Peat is a fibrous aggregate of finer fragments of decayed vegetable matter. Peat is very
compressible and one should be cautious when using it to support foundations of structures.
Loam is a mixture of sand, silt and clay.
Loess is a fine-grained, air-borne deposit characterized by uniform grain size, and high void
ratio. The size of particles ranges between about 0.01 to 0.05 mm. The soil can stand deep
vertical cuts because of slight cementation between particles. It is formed in dry continental
regions, and its color is yellowish-light brown.
Shale is a material in the state of transition from clay to slate. Shale itself is sometimes
considered a rock but, when it is exposed to the air or has a chance to take in water it may
rapidly decompose.

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 Thank You

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