Principle of

Virtual Work

1
2

– The principle of virtual work was developed by John Bernoulli in 1717 and is
sometimes referred to as the unit-load method. It provides a general means of
obtaining the displacement and slope at a specific point on a structure, be it a
beam, frame, or truss.
3

– If we take a deformable structure of any shape or size and apply a series of

external loads P to it, it will cause internal loads u at points throughout the
structure. It is necessary that the external and internal loads be related by the
equations of equilibrium.
4

– As a consequence of these loadings, external displacements will occur at the P

loads and internal displacements will occur at each point of internal load u. In
general, these displacements do not have to be elastic, and they may not be
related to the loads; however, the external and internal displacements must be
related by the compatibility of the displacements.
5

– In other words, if the external displacements are known, the corresponding

internal displacements are uniquely defined. In general, then, the principle of
work and energy states:
6

– Based on this concept, the principle of virtual work will now be developed. To
do this, we will consider the structure (or body) to be of arbitrary shape (This
arbitrary shape will later represent a specific truss, beam, or frame) as shown in
Fig. b. Suppose it is necessary to determine the displacement of point A on the
body caused by the “real loads” , and .
7

– It is to be understood that these loads cause no movement of the supports; in

general, however, they can strain the material beyond the elastic limit. Since no
external load acts on the body at A and in the direction of , the displacement
can be determined by first placing on the body a “virtual” load such that this
force acts in the same direction as Fig. a.
8

– For convenience, which will be apparent later, we will choose to have a “unit”
magnitude, that is , The term “virtual” is used to describe the load, since it is
imaginary and does not actually exist as part of the real loading. The unit load
does, however, create an internal virtual load u in a representative element or
fiber of the body, as shown in Fig.9–6a. Here it is required that and u be related
by the equations of equilibrium.
9

– Once the virtual loadings are applied, then the body is subjected to the real
loads , and Fig.9–6b. Point A will be displaced an amount causing the element
to deform an amount dL. As a result, the external virtual force and internal
virtual load u “ride along” by and , respectively, and therefore perform external
virtual work of on the body and internal virtual work of on the element.
10

– Realizing that the external virtual work is equal to the internal virtual work done
on all the elements of the body, we can write the virtual-work equation as
11 Method of Virtual Work

– We can use the method of virtual work to determine the displacement of a

truss joint when the truss is subjected to an external loading, temperature
change, or fabrication errors.
12 External Loading

– For the purpose of explanation let us consider the vertical displacement of joint
B of the truss in Fig. 9–7a. Here a typical element of the truss would be one of
its members having a length , Fig. 9–7 b. If the applied loadings and cause a
linear elastic material response, then this element deforms an amount where
is the normal or axial force in the member, caused by the loads. Applying Eq. 9–
13, the virtual-work equation for the truss is therefore:
13
14 Temperature

– In some cases, truss members may change their length due to temperature. If
is the coefficient of thermal expansion for a member and is the change in its
temperature, the change in length of a member is . Hence, we can determine
the displacement of a selected truss joint due to this temperature change from
Eq. 9–13,written as:
15
16 Fabrication Errors and Camber

– Occasionally, errors in fabricating the lengths of the members of a truss may

occur. Also, in some cases truss members must be made slightly longer or
shorter in order to give the truss a camber. Camber is often built into a bridge
truss so that the bottom cord will curve upward by an amount equivalent to the
downward deflection of the cord when subjected to the bridge’s full dead
weight. If a truss member is shorter or longer than intended, the displacement
of a truss joint from its expected position can be determined from direct
application of Eq.9–13,written as
17
18 Procedure for Analysis

– The following procedure may be used to determine a specific displacement of

any joint on a truss using the method of virtual work.
19 Procedure for Analysis

– Virtual Forces n

• Place the unit load on the truss at the joint where the desired displacement is to be
determined. The load should be in the same direction as the specified displacement, e.g.,
horizontal or vertical.

• With the unit load so placed, and all the real loads removed from the truss, use the
method of joints or the method of sections and calculate the internal n force in each truss
member. Assume that tensile forces are positive and compressive forces are negative.
20

– Real Forces N

• Use the method of sections or the method of joints to determine the N force in
each member. These forces are caused only by the real loads acting on the
truss. Again, assume tensile forces are positive and compressive forces are
negative.
21

– Virtual-Work Equation

• Apply the equation of virtual work, to determine the desired displacement. It is

important to retain the algebraic sign for each of the corresponding n and N
forces when substituting these terms into the equation.

• If the resultant sum is positive, the displacement is in the same direction as the
unit load. If a negative value results, is opposite to the unit load.
22

• When applying , realize that if any of the members undergoes an increase in

temperature, will be positive, whereas a decrease in temperature results in a
negative value for .

• For when a fabrication error increases the length of a member, is positive,

whereas a decrease in length is negative.
23

– When applying any formula, attention should be paid to the units of each
numerical quantity. In particular, the virtual unit load can be assigned any
arbitrary unit (lb, kip, N, etc.), since the n forces will have these same units, and
as a result the units for both the virtual unit load and the n forces will cancel
from both sides of the equation.
24 Example

– The cross-sectional area of each member of the truss shown in Fig. 9–9a is and .

(a) Determine the vertical displacement of joint C if a 4-kN force is applied to the
truss at C.

(b) If no loads act on the truss, what would be the vertical displacement of joint C
if member AB were 5 mm too short?
25 SOLUTION Part (a)

– Virtual Forces n.

– Since the vertical displacement of joint C is to be determined, a virtual force of

1 kN is applied at C in the vertical direction. The units of this force are the same
as those of the real loading. The support reactions at A and B are calculated and
the n force in each member is determined by the method of joints as shown on
the free-body diagrams of joints A and B, Fig.9–9b.
26

– Real Forces N.
– The joint analysis of A and B when the real load of 4 kN is applied to the truss is
given in Fig.9–9c.

Real forces N
27

– Virtual-Work Equation.

– Since AE is constant, each of the terms can be arranged in tabular form and
computed. Here positive numbers indicate tensile forces and negative numbers
indicate compressive forces.
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29 Part (b)

– Here we must apply Eq. 9–17. Since the vertical displacement of C is to be

determined, we can use the results of Fig.9–7b. Only member AB undergoes a
change in length, namely, of Thus,
30 Classwork

1. Determine the vertical displacement of joint A. Each bar is made of steel and has
a cross-sectional area of . Take . Use the method of virtual work.
31

2. Determine the vertical displacement of joint E. For each member , . Use the
method of virtual work.
32 Method of Virtual Work for
Beams and Frames
– The method of virtual work can also be applied to deflection problems involving
beams and frames. The principle of virtual work, or more exactly, the method of
virtual force, may be formulated for beam and frame deflections by considering
the beam shown in Fig.9–14b.
33 Method of Virtual Work for
Beams and Frames
– Here the displacement of point A is to be determined. To compute a virtual unit
load acting in the direction of is placed on the beam at A, and the internal
virtual moment m is determined by the method of sections at an arbitrary
location x from the left support, Fig.9–14a. When the real loads act on the
beam,Fig.9–14b, point A is displaced . Provided these loads cause linear elastic
material response, then the element deforms or rotates
34 Method of Virtual Work for
Beams and Frames
– Here M is the internal moment at x caused
by the real loads. Consequently, the
external virtual work done by the unit load
is and the internal virtual work done by the
moment m is Summing the effects on all
the elements along the beam requires an
integration. Thus,
35

– In a similar manner, if the tangent rotation or slope angle at a point A on the

beam’s elastic curve is to be determined, Fig.9–15, a unit couple moment is first
applied at the point, and the corresponding internal moments have to be
determined. Since the work of the unit couple is then,
36

– When applying the above equations, it is important to realize that the definite

integrals on the right side actually represent the amount of virtual strain energy

that is stored in the beam. If concentrated forces or couple moments act on the

beam or the distributed load is discontinuous, a single integration cannot be

performed across the beam’s entire length.

37

– Instead, separate x coordinates will have to be chosen within regions that have

no discontinuity of loading. Also, it is not necessary that each x have the same

origin; however, the x selected for determining the real moment M in a

particular region must be the same x as that selected for determining the virtual

moment m or within the same region.

38

– For example, consider the beam shown in Fig. 9–16. In order to determine the

displacement of D, four regions of the beam must be considered, and therefore

four integrals having the form must be evaluated. We can use to determine the

strain energy in region AB, for region BC, for region DE, and for region DC. In

any case, each x coordinate should be selected so that both M and m (or ) can

be easily formulated.
39 Procedure for Analysis

– The following procedure may be used to determine the displacement and/or

the slope at a point on the elastic curve of a beam or frame using the method of
virtual work.
40 Virtual Moments m or

• Place a unit load on the beam or frame at the point and in the direction of the desired
displacement.

• If the slope is to be determined, place a unit couple moment at the point.

• Establish appropriate x coordinates that are valid within regions of the beam or frame
where there is no discontinuity of real or virtual load.

• With the virtual load in place, and all the real loads removed from the beam or frame,
calculate the internal moment m or as a function of each x coordinate.

• Assume m or acts in the conventional positive direction as indicated in Fig.4–1.

41 Real Moments

• Using the same x coordinates as those established for m or determine the

internal moments M caused only by the real loads.

• Since m or was assumed to act in the conventional positive direction, it is

important that positive M acts in this same direction. This is necessary since
positive or negative internal work depends upon the directional sense of load
(defined by or ) and displacement (defined by ).
42 Virtual-Work Equation

• Apply the equation of virtual work to determine the desired displacement or

rotation . It is important to retain the algebraic sign of each integral calculated
within its specified region.

• If the algebraic sum of all the integrals for the entire beam or frame is positive,
or is in the same direction as the virtual unit load or unit couple moment,
respectively. If a negative value results, the direction of or is opposite to that of
the unit load or unit couple moment.
43 Classwork

– Determine the displacement of point B of the steel beam shown in Fig.9–17a.

Take .
44 Solution

– Virtual Moment (m)

The vertical displacement of point B is obtained by placing a virtual unit load of 1kN
at B, Fig. 9–17b. By inspection there are no discontinuities of loading on the beam for
both the real and virtual loads. Thus, a single x coordinate can be used to determine
the virtual strain energy. This coordinate will be selected with its origin at B, since
then the reactions at A do not have to be determined in order to find the internal
moments m and M. Using the method of sections, the internal moment m is
formulated as shown in Fig.9–17b.
45

– Real Moment (M)

Using the same x coordinate, the internal moment M is formulated as shown in Fig.
9–17c.
46

– Virtual-Work Equation
The vertical displacement of B is thus