Theory

• Strength of Materials: Basic concepts in Statics and Dynamics. Force Systems. Equilibrium
condition, friction, Law of friction, Second moments of inertia, Parallel axis theorem.
• Dynamics: Equation of motion. Translation and rotation of a Rigid body, work and mechanics of
materials: Stress-Axial Load classification Strain-Hooke’s law, stress-strain diagram,
• Poisson’s Ratio: Shearing Stresses. Torsion, Torsion formula, Angle to Twist of circular members.
Power transmission shear force and bending moments, Shear in Beams, Bending Moment in
beams. Pure bending of beams, Flexural stress shearing stresses in beams relations between
centre, Torsional and flexural loads.
• Dairy Machine Design: Procedures, Specification, strength, design factor, factor of safety selection
of factor of safety. Materials and properties. Static strength, ductility, hardness, fatigue, designing
for fatigue conditions. Theories of failure, Stresses in elementary machine parts, Design of a drive
system. Design of length and thickness of belt. Bearing: Journal and Anti-friction bearings.
Selection of ball, tapered roller and thrust bearing. Springs, helical and leaf springs. Energy stored
in springs. Design and selection of springs.
Practical
• Practical Design problems on applications of engineering statics and dynamics.
• Design problems on applications of work and energy.
• Design problems on applications of linear and angular momentum.
• Design problems on stress-strain diagram evaluation of elastic constants.
• Study on shear force and bending moment diagrams and its applications.
• Design problems on applications of flexural stresses.
• Design problems on applications of shearing stresses in beams.
• Study on system of limits, fits and tolerances and their applications.
• Design stresses in elementary machine parts.
• Design features and applications of shafts. Design features and applications of axles.
• Design features and applications of keys.
• Design features and applications of couplings.
• Design problems on various types of power transmission systems.
• Design features and applications of bearings.
• Design features and applications of springs. Design problems on agitator/stirrer.
• Design features of milk silo.
Definition:
Machine Design is the creation of new and better machines and improving the existing ones. A
new or better machine is one which is more economical in the overall cost of production and
operation.
Classifications of Machine Design
The machine design may be classified as follows:
1. Adaptive design: In most cases, the designer’s work is concerned with adaptation of
existing designs. This type of design needs no special knowledge or skill and can be attempted
by designers of ordinary technical training. The designer only makes minor alternation or
modification in the existing designs of the product.
2. Development design: This type of design needs considerable scientific training and design
ability in order to modify the existing designs into a new idea by adopting a new material or
different method of manufacture. In this case, though the designer starts from the existing
design, but the final product may differ quite markedly from the original product.
3. New design: This type of design needs lot of research, technical ability and creative
thinking. Only those designers who have personal qualities of a sufficiently high order can
take up the work of a new design.
 Development Design

Adaptive Design
The designs, depending upon the methods used, may be classified as
follows:
a) Rational design. This type of design depends upon mathematical formulae of
principle of mechanics.
(b) Empirical design. This type of design depends upon empirical formulae based on
the practice and past experience.
(c) Industrial design. This type of design depends upon the production aspects to
manufacture any machine component in the industry.
(d) Optimum design. It is the best design for the given objective function under the
specified constraints. It may be achieved by minimising the undesirable effects.
(e) System design. It is the design of any complex mechanical system like a motor car.
(f) Element design. It is the design of any element of the mechanical system like
piston, crankshaft, connecting rod, etc.
(g) Computer aided design. This type of design depends upon the use of computer
systems to assist in the creation, modification, analysis and optimisation of a design.
General Considerations in Machine Design
1. Type of load and stresses caused by the load: The load, on a machine
component, may act in several ways due to which the internal stresses
are set up.
2. Motion of the parts or kinematics of the machine: The successful
operation of any machine depends largely upon the simplest
arrangement of the parts which will give the motion required.
The motion of the parts may be :
(a) Rectilinear motion which includes unidirectional and reciprocating
motions.
(b) Curvilinear motion which includes rotary, oscillatory and simple
harmonic.
(c) Constant velocity.
(d) Constant or variable acceleration.
3. Selection of materials: Designer should know the material like strength,
durability, flexibility, weight, resistance to heat and corrosion, ability to
cast, welded or hardened, machinability, electrical conductivity, etc.
4. Form and size of the parts: In order to design any machine part for
form and size, it is necessary to know the forces which the part must
sustain. It is also important to anticipate any suddenly applied or impact
load which may cause failure.
5. Frictional resistance and lubrication: There is always a loss of power
due to frictional resistance and it should be noted that the friction of
starting is higher than that of running friction. It is, therefore, essential
that a careful attention must be given to the matter of lubrication of all
surfaces which move in contact with others, whether in rotating, sliding,
or rolling bearings.
6. Convenient and economical features: The starting, controlling and
stopping levers should be located on the basis of convenient handling.
The adjustment for wear must be provided employing the various
takeup devices and arranging them so that the alignment of parts is
preserved. If parts are to be changed for different products or replaced
on account of wear or breakage, easy access should be provided.
7. Use of standard parts: The use of standard parts is closely related to
cost, because the cost of standard or stock parts is only a fraction of the
cost of similar parts made to order.
8. Safety of operation: Some machines are dangerous to operate,
especially those which are speeded up to insure production at a
maximum rate. It is necessary that a designer should always provide
safety devices for the safety of the operator. The safety appliances
should in no way interfere with operation of the machine.
9. Workshop facilities: A design engineer should be familiar with the limitations
of his employer’s workshop, in order to avoid the necessity of having work done
in some other workshop. It is sometimes necessary to plan and supervise the
workshop operations and to draft methods for casting, handling and machining
special parts.
10. Number of machines to be manufactured: The number of articles or
machines to be manufactured affects the design in a number of ways. The
engineering and shop costs which are called fixed charges or overhead expenses
are distributed over the number of articles to be manufactured. If only a few
articles are to be made, extra expenses are not justified unless the machine is
large or of some special design.
11. Cost of construction: The cost of construction of an article is the most
important consideration involved in design. The aim of design engineer under all
conditions, should be to reduce the manufacturing cost to the minimum.
12. Assembling: Every machine or structure must be assembled as a unit before
it can function. Large units must often be assembled in the shop, tested and
then taken to be transported to their place of service.
General Procedure in Machine Design
1. Recognition of need. First of all, make a
complete statement of the problem, indicating
the need, aim or purpose for which the
machine is to be designed.
2. Synthesis (Mechanisms). Select the possible
mechanism or group of mechanisms which will
give the desired motion.
3. Analysis of forces. Find the forces acting on
each member of the machine and the energy
transmitted by each member.
4. Material selection. Select the material best
suited for each member of the machine.
5. Design of elements (Size and Stresses). Find the size of each member
of the machine by considering the force acting on the member and the
permissible stresses for the material used. It should be kept in mind that
each member should not deflect or deform than the permissible limit.
6. Modification. Modify the size of the member to agree with the past
experience and judgment to facilitate manufacture. The modification
may also be necessary by consideration of manufacturing to reduce
overall cost.
7. Detailed drawing. Draw the detailed drawing of each component and
the assembly of the machine with complete specification for the
manufacturing processes suggested.
8. Production. The component, as per the drawing, is manufactured in
the workshop.
 Mechanical Properties of Metals
• The mechanical properties of the metals are those which are associated with
the ability of the material to resist mechanical forces and load. These
mechanical properties of the metal include strength, stiffness, elasticity,
plasticity, ductility, brittleness, malleability, toughness, resilience, creep and
hardness.
1. Strength. It is the ability of a material to resist the externally
applied forces without breaking or yielding. The internal resistance
offered by a part to an externally applied force is called stress.
2. Stiffness. It is the ability of a material to resist deformation under
stress. The modulus of elasticity is the measure of stiffness.
3. Resilience. It is the property of a material to absorb energy and to resist shock and
impact loads. It is measured by the amount of energy absorbed per unit volume
within elastic limit. This property is essential for spring materials.
4. Creep. When a part is subjected to a constant stress at high temperature for a long
period of time, it will undergo a slow and permanent deformation called creep.
5. Elasticity. It is the property of a material to regain its original shape after
deformation when the external forces are removed. This property is desirable for
materials used in tools and machines. It may be noted that steel is more elastic than
rubber.
6. Plasticity. It is property of a material which retains the deformation produced under load
permanently. This property of the material is necessary for forgings, in stamping images on coins and
in ornamental work.
7. Ductility. It is the property of a material enabling it to be drawn into wire with the
application of a tensile force.
8. Malleability. It is a special case of ductility which permits materials to be rolled or
hammered into thin sheets. A malleable material should be plastic but it is not
essential to be so strong. The malleable materials commonly used in engineering
practice (in order of diminishing malleability) are lead, soft steel, wrought iron,
copper and aluminium
9. Brittleness. It is the property of a material opposite to ductility. It is the property of
breaking of a material with little permanent distortion. Brittle materials when
subjected to tensile loads, snap off without giving any sensible elongation. Cast iron is
a brittle material.
10. Toughness. It is the property of a material to resist fracture due to high impact
loads like hammer blows. The toughness of the material decreases when it is heated.
11. Machinability. It is the property of a material which refers to a relative case with
which a material can be cut.
12. Fatigue. When a material is subjected to repeated stresses, it fails at stresses
below the yield point stresses. Such type of failure of a material is known as fatigue.
The failure is caused by means of a progressive crack formation which are usually fine
and of microscopic size. This property is considered in designing shafts, connecting
rods, springs, gears, etc.

13. Hardness. It embraces many different properties such as resistance to wear,

scratching, deformation and machinability etc. It also means the ability of a metal to
cut another metal.
 Simple Stresses in Machine Parts
In engineering practice, the machine parts are subjected to various forces which may be due to either one or more of
the following:

1. Energy transmitted

2. Weight of machine

3. Frictional resistances

4. Inertia of reciprocating parts

5. Change of temperature

6. Lack of balance of moving parts.

Load: It is defined as any external force acting upon a machine part. The following
four types of the load are important from the subject point of view:

1. Dead or steady load. A load is said to be a dead or steady load, when it does not
change in magnitude or direction. Eg. A Civil Structure

2. Live or variable load. A load is said to be a live or variable load, when it changes
continually. Eg. A moving vehicle

3. Suddenly applied or shock loads. A load is said to be a suddenly applied or shock

load, when it is suddenly applied or removed. Eg. Suspension of car

4. Impact load. A load is said to be an impact load, when it is applied with some
initial velocity. Eg. A punch
Types of Loads
Stress

When some external system of forces or loads act on a body, the internal forces (equal and
opposite) are set up at various sections of the body, which resist the external forces. This
internal force per unit area at any section of the body is known as unit stress or simply a
stress. It is denoted by a Greek letter sigma (σ). Mathematically,

Stress, σ = P/A

where P = Force or load acting on a body, and

A = Cross-sectional area of the body.

In S.I. units, the stress is usually expressed in Pascal (Pa) such that 1 Pa = 1 N/m 2. In actual
practice, we use bigger units of stress i.e. megapascal (MPa) and gigapascal (GPa), such
that

1 MPa = 1 × 106 N/m2 = 1 N/mm2 and 1 GPa = 1 × 109 N/m2 = 1 kN/mm2

• Strain

• When a system of forces or loads act on a body, it undergoes some deformation.

This deformation per unit length is known as unit strain or simply a strain. It is
denoted by a Greek letter epsilon (ε).

Mathematically,

Strain, ε = δl / l or δl = ε.l

where δl = Change in length of the body, and

l = Original length of the body.

 POISSON’S RATIO
• Whenever a bar is subjected to tensile load, its length will increase but its lateral
dimension will decrease. Thus changes in longitudinal and lateral dimensions are
of opposite nature.
• The transverse dimension B‟ changes to δB and the deformation has the opposite
signs.
• The ratio of transverse strain to the longitudinal strain is called Poisson‟s ratio
and is designated as μ.

εt is the Lateral or Transverse Strain

εl is the Longitudinal or Axial Strain

is the Poisson’s Ratio

• The Poisson‟s ratio is dimensionless parameter.
• For tensile deformation, Poisson’s ratio is positive.
• For compressive deformation, it is negative.
• For most of engineering materials its value is in between 0 to 0.5.
• For most of the metals its value is in the range of 0.2 to 0.3.
• The Modulus of Elasticity (E), the Modulus of Rigidity (G) and the Poisson‟s ratio,
m are related by the relation,
 Types of strain
on the basis of the type of loading on the basis of type of deformation
1. Tensile strain 1. Temporary or elastic strain
2. Compressive strain 2. Permanent or plastic strain
3. Shear strain

Also Classified as:

4. Linear strain
5. Lateral strain
6. Volumetric strain
 Compressive strain
Let us see here the following figure; we have one bar of length L. There are two equal and
opposite push type of loading P, acting axially and trying to push the bar and this pushing action
will result the decrease in the length of the bar under the action of compressive loading, but
diameter of the bar will be increased under the action of compressive loading. Ԑ c is the symbol
which is used to represent the tensile strain in a member.

Compressive strain will be determined with the help of following formula.

Compressive strain (Ԑc) = Decrease in length (dL) / Original length (L)
Ԑc = dL / L
 Shear strain
Let us see here the following figure; we have two plates and these two plates are connected with each other with the
help of a pin or a rivet as shown in figure. There are two equal and opposite forces (P) acting tangentially across the
resisting section.

One force is acting on top plate towards left direction and second force is acting towards right side as shown in
figure and hence such type of loading will try to shear off the body across the resisting section.

This type of loading action will be termed as shear loading and stress developed in material of the body will be
termed as shear stress and corresponding strain will be termed as shear strain
• Temporary or elastic strain :Temporary strain or elastic strain is such type of strain
which will be disappeared on removal of external load or we can say that body will
return to its original shape and size.
• Permanent or plastic strain :Permanent strain or plastic strain is such type of
strain which will not be disappeared on removal of external load or we can say
that body will not return to its original shape and size.
• Linear strain:Linear strain will be basically defined as the ratio of change in length
of the body to the original length of the body. Linear strain might be tensile or
compressive depending on the type of loading i.e. tensile loading or compressive
loading. Here in this example, linear strain will be tensile strain because tensile
loading is here.
• Lateral strain: Therefore we can define here lateral strain as; lateral strain will be
basically defined as the ratio of change in breadth of the body to the original
breadth of the body.
• Volumetric strain: Volumetric strain will be defined as the ratio of change in volume of the
object to its original volume. Volumetric strain is also termed as bulk strain.
Ԑv= Change in volume /original volume
Ԑv= dV/V
• Let us consider one cylindrical rod or bar as displayed in following figure and let us assume that
cylindrical rod is subjected with a tensile loading i.e. P as displayed in following figure

L = Length of the cylindrical rod

d = Diameter of the cylindrical rod
Volume of the cylindrical rod, V =
(Π/4) d2. L

ΔL= Change in length of the cylindrical

rod
Δd= Change in diameter of the
cylindrical rod
ΔV= Change in volume of the
cylindrical rod
• Final length of the cylindrical rod = L+ ΔL
As we know very well that when tensile load P will act over
the cylindrical rod, there will be increment in length of the
cylindrical rod and decrease in diameter of the cylindrical rod.
Final diameter of the cylindrical rod = d - Δd
Final volume of the cylindrical rod = (Π/4) (d - Δd) 2. (L+ ΔL)
A rod of 100m long and of 2mx2m cross section is under pull of 1000N force. If the
modulus of elasticity of the material is 2x106 N/m2, determines the elongation of
the rod.
Given Length of the rod, l=100m
Area of the rod, A=2x2=4m2
Load P=1000N
Modulus of elasticity E=2x106N/m2
Let ∂ l=elongation of the rod
Power Transmission:
• Power transmission is the movement of energy from its place of generation to a
location where it is applied to performing useful work.
• Power transmission is normally accomplished by belts, ropes, chains, gears,
couplings and friction clutches. They are subjected to twisting and bending
moments.
MODES OF POWER TRANSMISSION:
Belts: A belt is a loop of flexible material used to link two or more rotating shafts
mechanically.
• Belts may be used as a source of motion, to transmit power, or to track relative
movement. Belts are looped over pulleys.
• In a two pulley system, the belt can either drive the pulleys in the same direction,
or the belt may be crossed, so that the direction of the shafts is opposite.
• As a source of motion, a conveyor belt is one application where the belt is adapted
to continually carry a load between two points.
Ropes: Ropes were used as belts for the transmission of power before belts became
common.
Because of the low coefficient of friction between the rope and the pulleys, multiple
loops were usually used, either as a single rope passing several times around the
pulleys, or multiple ropes on the same pulleys.
Chains: A chain drive can be used in a variety of machines such as bicycles and
motorcycles. In addition to these machines, there are also many other vehicles
which also have requirements for the chain drive.
• It is a basic way of transmitting mechanical power from one place to another. One
of its main uses is to convey power to the wheels of a vehicle.
Gears: A gear is a rotating machine part having cut teeth, or cogs, which mesh with
another toothed part in order to transmit torque.
Two or more gears working in tandem are called a transmission and can produce a
mechanical advantage through a gear ratio and thus may be considered a simple
machine.
Geared devices can change the speed, magnitude, and direction of a power source.
Couplings: A coupling is a device used to connect two shafts together at their ends
for the purpose of transmitting power. Couplings do not normally allow
disconnection of shafts during operation.
Shafts: A shaft is a rotating machine element which is used to transmit power from
power from one place to another.
The power is delivered to the shafts by some tangential force and the resultant
torque (or twisting moment) set up within the shaft permits the power to be
transferred to various machines linked up to the shaft.
In order to transfer the power one shaft to another, the various members such as
pulleys, gears etc. are mounted on it.
Types:
1.Transmission shafts: These shafts transmit power between the source and the
machine absorbing power. The counter shafts, line shafts, over head shafts and all
factory shafts are transmitting shafts. Since these shafts carry machine parts such
as pulley, gears etc., therefore they are subjected to bending in addition to
twisting.
2.Machine Shafts: These shafts form an integral part of the machine itself. The
crank should be examples of machine shaft.
• Shafts are usually cylindrical, but may be square or cross-shaped in
section. They are solid in cross section but sometimes hollow shafts
are also used.
• Axle: similar in shape to the shaft but is stationary machine element
and is used for the transmission of bending moment only.
• Spindle: is a short shaft that imparts either a cutting tool (drill press)
or to a work piece (eg. Lathe spindles)
Materials used for shafts
• Should hive high strength
• Good machinability
• Low notch sensitivity factor
• Good heat treatment properties
• High wear resistant properties
Material used: steel grade 40 C 8, 45 C 8, 50 C 12
Stresses in shaft
1. Shear stress due to the transmission of torque(i.e. due to torsional load)
2. Bending stresses (tensile or compressive) due to the forces acting upon machine
elements gears, pulleys etc.as well as due to the weight of the shafts itself.
3. Stresses due to combined torsional and bending loads.
Maximum permissible working Stresses for Transmission Shafts:
American Society of Mechanical Engineers(ASME) code for the design of
transmission shafts, the maximum permissible working stresses in tension or
compression may be such as
a. 112 MPa for shafts without allowances for key ways.
b. 84 MPa for shafts with allowance for key ways.
Design shafts
The shafts may be designed on the basis of
1. Strength
2. Rigidity and stiffness
In designing shafts on the basis of strength, the following cases may be considered:
a. Shafts subjected to twisting moment or torque only,
b. Shafts subjected to bending moment only,
c. Shafts subjected to combined twisting and bending moments
d. Shafts subjected to axial loads in addition to combined torsional and bending
loads.
r = Distance from neutral axis to the outer
most fibre
= d / 2; where d is the diameter of the
shaft.
 Keys and couplings
• A key is a piece of mild steel inserted between the shaft and hub or
boss of the pulley to connect these together in order to prevent
relative motion between them.
• It is always inserted parallel to the axis of the shaft. Keys are used as
temporary fastenings and are subjected to considerable crushing and
shearing stresses.
• A keyway is a slot or recess in a shaft and hub of the pulley to
accommodate a key.
Basic Function
1. Transmit the torque from shaft to the hub of mating element or
vice-versa.
2. To prevent relative rotational motion between the shaft and the
joined machine element like gear or pulley.
• Keyways: a recess or slot machined either on the shaft or hub to
accommodate key.
• It is usually cut by vertical or by horizontal milling cutter.

Drawbacks: Keyway results in stress concentration in the shaft and the

part becomes weak.
Material:- Plain carbon steel like 45C8 or 50C8
As per IS, steel of tensile strength not less than 600 Mpa is used for key.
 Types of keys
1. Sunk keys
2. Saddle keys
3. Tangent keys
4. Round keys
5. Splines
Selection of Key
• Power to be transmitted
• Tightness of fit
• Stability of connection
• Cost
A. Sunk keys
The sunk keys are provided half in the keyway of the shaft and half in
the keyway of the hub or boss of the pulley. The sunk keys are of the
following types :
1. Rectangular sunk key
The usual proportions of this key are : Width of key, w = d / 4 ; and
thickness of key, t = 2w / 3 = d / 6 (where d = Diameter of the shaft or
diameter of the hole in the hub).
The key has taper 1 in 100 on the top side only.
2. Square sunk key:-The only difference between a rectangular sunk
key and a square sunk key is that its width and thickness are equal, i.e.
w = t = d / 4.

• 3. Parallel sunk:- The parallel sunk keys may be of rectangular or

square section uniform in width and thickness throughout. Parallel
key is a taperless and is used where the pulley, gear or other mating
piece is required to slide along the shaft.

• 4. Gib-head key: It is a rectangular sunk key with a head at one end

known as gib head. It is usually provided to facilitate the removal of
key.
The usual proportions of the gib head key are : Width, w = d / 4 ; and thickness at
large end, t = 2w / 3 = d / 6
5. Feather key: A key attached to one member of a pair and which permits relative
axial movement is known as feather key. It is a special type of parallel key which
transmits a turning moment and also permits axial movement. It is fastened either
to the shaft or hub, the key being a sliding fit in the key way of the moving piece.
The feather key may be screwed to the shaft as shown in Fig. (a) or it may have
double gib heads as shown in Fig.(b). The various proportions of a feather key are
same as that of rectangular sunk key and gib head key.
6. Woodruff key. The woodruff key is an easily adjustable key.
It is a piece from a cylindrical disc having segmental cross-section in front view. A
woodruff key is capable of tilting in a recess milled out in the shaft by a cutter
having the same curvature as the disc from which the key is made. This key is
largely used in machine tool and automobile construction.
Advantages
1. It accommodates itself to any taper in the hub or boss of the mating piece.
2. It is useful on tapering shaft ends. Its extra depth in the shaft prevents any
tendency to turn over in its keyway.
Disadvantages: 1. The depth of the keyway weakens the shaft.
2. It can not be used as a feather.
B. Saddle keys
• The saddle keys are of the following two types :
• 1.Flat saddle key 2. Hollow saddle key.
• A flat saddle key is a taper key which fits in a keyway in the hub and is flat on
the shaft. It is likely to slip round the shaft under load. Therefore it is used for
comparatively light loads.
• A hollow saddle key is a taper key which fits in a keyway in the hub and the
bottom of the key is shaped to fit the curved surface of the shaft. Since hollow
saddle keys hold on by friction, therefore these are suitable for light loads. It is
usually used as a temporary fastening in fixing and setting eccentrics, cams etc.
C. Tangent Keys
The tangent keys are fitted in pair at right
angles. Each key is to withstand torsion in one
direction only. These are used in large heavy
duty shafts.

D. Round Keys : circular in section and fit into

holes drilled partly in the shaft and partly in the
hub.
Advantage: keyways may be drilled and reamed
after the mating parts have been assembled.
-Used for low power drives.
E. Splines
• Splines are the key integral with the shaft
• These shafts usually have four, six, ten or sixteen
splines.
Used when there is a relative axial motion between
the shaft and hub
• Gear shifting mechanism in automobile gear boxes
requires such types of construction
• Splines are cut on the shaft by milling and on the
hub by broaching
Shaft Coupling
Shafts are usually available up to 7 metres length due to inconvenience in
transport. In order to have a greater length, it becomes necessary to join two or
more pieces of the shaft by means of a coupling.