University of Science and

Technology of Hanoi

COURSE: MANUFACTURING 1

Chapter 2 Fundamentals of Materials

Their Behavior and Manufacturing Properties

Department of Spatial Equipment Fabrication and Autonomous Systems

 Contents

 Physical Properties of Materials

 Introduction
 Density
 Melting Point
 Specific Heat
 Thermal Conductivity
 Thermal Expansion
 Electrical, Magnetic, and Optical Properties
 Corrosion Resistance

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 Introduction
 Physical properties can have several important roles in the selection, processing, and use
of materials.
 These properties are key factors in determining a material’s suitability for specific
applications, especially when considered simultaneously with mechanical properties.
 Strength-to-weight and stiffness-to-weight ratios, as examples, are discussed in the
context of lightweight designs, a key consideration in aerospace and automotive
industries.
 Thermal, electrical, magnetic, and optical properties are then presented.
 The importance of corrosion and corrosion-resistant materials are described.
 Design and manufacturing implications of all of these properties are considered, with
various specific examples given.

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 Introduction
 Why is electrical wiring generally made of copper? Why are aluminum, stainless steel,
and copper so commonly used in cookware? Why are the handles of cookware usually
made of wood or plastic, while other types of handles are made of metal? What kind of
material should be chosen for the heating elements in toasters? Why are the metallic
components in some machines being replaced with ceramics? Why are commercial
airplane bodies generally made of aluminum, and why are some airplane components
being replaced gradually with those made of various composite materials, including
reinforced plastics?
 It is apparent from these questions that one important criterion in material selection is
consideration of physical properties, such as density, melting point, specific heat, thermal
conductivity, thermal expansion, electrical and magnetic properties, and resistance to
oxidation and corrosion.
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 Density
 The density of a material is its mass per unit volume. Another term is specific gravity,
which expresses a material’s density in relation to that of Water; thus, specific gravity has
no units. The range of densities for a variety of materials at room temperature, along with
other properties, is given in Tables

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 Density
 Weight saving is particularly important for aircraft
and aerospace structures, for automotive bodies and
components, and for other products where energy
consumption and power limitations are major
concerns. A significant role that density plays is in the
strength-to-weight ratio and stiffness-to-weight ratio
of materials and structures.
 Density is an important factor in the selection of
materials for high-speed equipment, such as Ratio of maximum yield stress
to density for selected metals.
magnesium in printing and textile machinery, many
components of which usually operate at very high
speeds.
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 Melting Point
 The melting point of a metal depends on the energy required to separate its atoms.
 The temperature range within which a component or structure is designed to function is an
important consideration in the selection of materials. Plastics, for example, have the lowest
useful temperature range, while graphite and refractory-metal alloys have the highest
useful range.
 The melting point of a metal has a number of indirect effects on manufacturing operations.
 Melting point also plays a major role in the selection of the equipment and the melting
practice employed in casting operations. The higher the melting point of the material, the
more difficult the operation becomes. In the electrical-discharge machining process, the
melting points of metals are related to the rate of material removal and of electrode wear

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 Specific Heat

 A material’s specific heat is the energy required to raise the temperature of a unit mass by 1
degree. Alloying elements have a relatively minor effect on the specific heat of metals. The
temperature rise in a work-piece, resulting from forming or machining operations, is a
function of the work done and of the specific heat of the work-piece material.
 An excessive temperature rise in a work-piece can decrease product quality by adversely
affecting its surface finish and dimensional accuracy, can cause excessive tool and die
wear, and can result in undesirable metallurgical changes in the material.

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 Thermal Conductivity

 Thermal conductivity indicates the rate at which heat flows within and through a material.
Metallically bonded materials generally have high thermal conductivity, while ironically or
covalently bonded materials have poor conductivity. Alloying elements can have a
significant effect on the thermal conductivity of alloys, as can be seen by comparing the
metals with their alloys. In general, materials with high electrical conductivity also have
high thermal conductivity.
 Thermal conductivity is an important consideration in many applications. For example,
high thermal conductivity is desirable in cooling fins, cutting tools, and die-casting molds
to extract heat. In contrast, materials with low thermal conductivity are used, for instance,
in furnace linings, insulation, coffee cups, and handles for pots and pans.

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 Thermal Expansion
 The thermal expansion of materials can have several significant effects, particularly the
relative expansion or contraction of different materials in assemblies such as electronic and
computer components, glass-to-metal seals, struts on jet engines, coatings on cutting tools,
and moving parts in machinery that require certain clearances for proper functioning.
 Shrink fits utilize thermal expansion and contraction. A shrink fit is a part, often a tube or
hub, that is to be installed over a shaft.
 Thermal expansion in conjunction with thermal conductivity plays the most significant role
in causing thermal stresses, both in manufactured components and in tools and dies, and
molds for casting operations.
 To alleviate some of the problems caused by thermal expansion, a family of iron-nickel
alloys with very low thermal-expansion coefficients has been developed, called low-
expansion alloys. The low thermal expansion characteristic of these alloys is often referred
to as the Invar effect, after the metal Inivar.
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 Electrical, Magnetic, and Optical Properties
 Electrical conductivity and the dielectric properties of materials are important not only in
electrical equipment and machinery, but also in such manufacturing processes as the
magnetic-pulse forming of sheet metals, resistance welding, and the electrical-discharge
machining and electrochemical grinding of hard and brittle materials.
 Dielectric Strength. An electrically insulating material’s dielectric strength is the largest
electric field it can encounter without degrading or losing its insulating properties.
 Conductors. Materials with high electrical conductivity, such as metals, are generally
referred to as conductors. Electrical resistivity is the inverse of electrical conductivity.
Materials With high electrical resistivity are referred to as dielectrics or insulators.
 Superconductors. Superconductivity is the phenomenon of near-zero electrical resistivity
that occurs in some metals and alloys below a critical temperature.
 Semiconductors. The electrical properties of semiconductors, such as single-crystal
silicon, germanium, and gallium arsenide, are extremely sensitive to temperature and to the
presence and type of minute impurities.
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 Electrical, Magnetic, and Optical Properties
 Ferromagnetism and Ferrimagnetism. Ferromagnetism is a phenomenon characterized
by high permeability and permanent magnetization that are due to the alignment of iron,
nickel, and cobalt atoms into domains. It is important in such applications as electric
motors, electric generators, electric transformers, and microwave devices.
 Piezoelectric Effect. The piezoelectric effect is exhibited by what are called smart
materials. Two basic behaviors are involved: (a) When subjected to an electric current,
these materials undergo a reversible change in shape, by as much as 4%, and (b) when
deformed by an external force, the materials emit a small electric current.
 Magnetostriction. The phenomenon of expansion or contraction of a material when it is
subjected to a magnetic field is called magnetostriction.
 Magnetorheostatic and Electrorheostatic Effects. When subjected to magnetic or
electric fields, some fluids undergo a major and reversible change in their viscosity within
a fraction of a second, turning from a liquid to an almost solid state
 Optical Properties. Among various other properties, color and opacity are particularly
relevant to polymers and glasses.
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 Corrosion Resistance
 Metals, ceramics, and plastics are all subject to forms of corrosion. The word corrosion
itself usually refers to the deterioration of metals and ceramics, while similar phenomena in
plastics are generally called degradation. Corrosion not only leads to surface deterioration
of components and structures, but also reduces their strength and structural integrity.
 Corrosion resistance is an important aspect of material selection for applications in the
chemical, food, and petroleum industries, as well as in manufacturing operations.
 Resistance to corrosion depends on the composition of the material and on the particular
environment.
 Corrosion can occur over an entire surface, or it can be localized, called pitting. Pitting is a
term that is also used for fatigue wear or failure of gears and in forging
 Tool and die materials also can be susceptible to chemical attack by lubricants and by
coolants; the chemical reaction alters their surface finish and adversely influences the
metalworking operation.
 Chemical reactions should not be regarded as having only adverse effects. Advanced
machining processes such as chemical and electrochemical machining are indeed based on
controlled chemical reactions
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 SUMMARY
 Physical and chemical properties can have several important influences on materials
selection, manufacturing, and on the service life of components. These properties and other
material characteristics should be considered because their effects on product design,
service requirements, and compatibility with other materials, including tools, dies, and
work-pieces.
 The combined properties of strength-to-weight and stiffness-to-weight ratios are important
factors in selecting materials for lightweight and high-performance structures.
 Thermal conductivity and thermal expansion are major factors in the development of
thermal stresses and thermal fatigue and shock, effects which are important in tool and die
life in manufacturing operations.
 Chemical reactions, including oxidation and corrosion, are considerations in material
selection, design, and manufacturing, as well as in the service life of components.
Passivation and stress-corrosion cracking are two important phenomena.
 Certain physical properties are utilized in manufacturing processes and their control, such
as the magnetostriction effect and the piezoelectric effect
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 PROJECTS
 On the same scale for stress, the tensile true stress-true strain curve is higher than the
engineering stress-engineering strain curve. Explain whether this condition also holds for a
compression test
 List and explain the desirable mechanical properties of:
 (a) an elevator cable,
 (b) a paper clip,
 (c) a leaf spring for a truck,
 (d) a bracket for a bookshelf,
 (e) piano wire,
 (f) a wire coat hanger,
 (g) the clip for a pen, and
 (h) a staple.

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