Individual Differences: Personality and Intelligence

Katie Page [email protected] Rm W12(Library Wing) Phone: x4271

What this course is all about

1. 2. 3. 4. Personality Individual Differences Intelligence Psychological testing psychometrics Abnormal behaviour - psychopathology

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Administration
Contact details Course outline - handout Reading lists Email list Reading pack ready week 2 Helios
Enrolment key (quotient)

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Weekly anagram LEARN I TO SPY

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Textbooks
Chamorro-Premuzic (2007). Personality and individual differences. Blackwell Publishing: Maldon, MA. Haslam, N. (2008). Introduction to Personality and Intelligence. Sage Publications: London. Maltby, J., Day, L., & Macaskill, A. (2007). Personality, individual differences and intelligence. Pearson Education Ltd: Harlow, England. Funder, D.C. (2007). The personality puzzle (4th ed.). W. W. Norton & Company, Inc: New York.

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Student websites
Associated with some texts are student websites which are very useful and informative. wwnorton.com/college/psych/puzzle
Reviews, activities and quizzes (gradebook)

www.pearsoned.co.uk/maltby
Reviews, quizzes, references and advanced readings
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Learning Outcomes
Appreciate why psychologists study personality Be aware of a variety of definitions of personality Understand the components of psychological definitions of personality Develop an understanding of the historical roots of personality theory Understand the major questions that personality theories aim to address Understand the criteria that can be used to evaluate personality theories
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What is personality for you?

STAGE 1: Alone, jot down a few words or a sentence or two which captures your definition or thoughts about personality Do not confer at this stage STAGE 2: Compare this with your friends definitions How do they match? How are they different? What can explain these differences?
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No two persons are born exactly alike; but each differs from the other in natural endowments, one being suited for one occupation and the other for another. (Plato) Every man is in certain respects (a) like all other men, (b) like some other men, (c) like no other man" (Murray & Kluckhohn, 1953).

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Individual Differences

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To what extent do you agree with the following statement?

Every individual is different?
1 Strongly Disagree 2 Slightly Disagree 3 Disagree 4 Neither agree nor disagree 5 Agree 6 Slightly Agree 7 Strongly Agree
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That people differ from each other is obvious. How and why they differ is less clear = personality and individual differences

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Definitions
Latin persona meaning mask Differential psychology aims to explain observable differences between individuals in terms of underlying psychological determinants (Chamorro-Premuzic, 2007; 2)

Personality A dynamic organisation , inside the person, of psychophysical systems that create the persons characteristic patterns of behaviour, thought and feelings (Allport, 1961; 11) An individuals characteristic pattern of thought, emotion, and behaviour, together with the psychological mechanisms hidden or not behind those patterns (Funder, 2007; 5)
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Key Components
Psychological construct Inside / internal Stable (trait versus state) Multiple components thought, feelings, behaviour Individual level not group measurements issues

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Scope
Personality psychology addresses three parts of the psychological triad: a combination of how people think (cognition), feel (affect) and behave (action). Broader than many other areas of psychology Tries to understand the big picture Contributes to developmental, social, cognitive, biological areas.
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Aims of Studying Personality

Motivational basis
Basic nature of human beings , what drives behaviour?

Provide descriptions or categorisations of how individuals behave Measuring personality Developmental theories
When does personality start to develop?, is it fixed or does it change across the lifespan?

Heritability versus environment Understand mental illness and abnormal behaviour.

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TRAITS

MOTIVATION

BEHAVIOUR

MOOD

SITUATIONAL FACTORS

Adapted from Chamorro-Premuzic, 2007

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The Basic Criteria That a Theory of Personality Should Satisfy

Figure 1.4

The basic criteria that a theory of personality should satisfy

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Basic Criteria - I
Description
Bring order to complexity of behaviours Should simplify, identify and clarify important issues

Explanation
Understand the why Must explain how and why commonly observed instances of behaviour occur
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Basic Criteria - II
Empirical validity
Generate predictions which can be empirically tested leads to validity Can it predict future behaviour in particular situations?

Testable concepts
Can the concepts in the theory be operationalised in order to allow testing? Concepts must be precise, independent and not vague and abstract with multiple possible meanings

Comprehensiveness
Encompass and explain a wide variety of both normal and abnormal behaviour Impossible (perhaps) to explain all therefore theories often limited in scope
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Basic Criteria - III

Parsimony
Economical Trade-off between complexity/comprehensiveness and parsimony

Heuristic Value
Stimulates research and interest in the area

Applied Value
Wider context Practical usefulness solve applied problems
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DEEPCHAT - acronym
D - description E - evaluation E empirical validity P - parsimony C - comprehensiveness H heuristic value A applied value T testable concepts
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Clarification - Terminology
Allport (1937 publication) personality
Key publication started the field

Individual differences term used by psychometricians who develop accurate measures of differences between people (really individual differences in personality)

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Themes and Issues

Awareness / unconscious Concept of self Unique vs general laws
Idiographic vs nomothetic

Person vs situation Philosophical view of person Past, present, future Feeling, thoughts and behaviour
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Feature Strategy

Idiographic Emphasises the uniqueness of individuals To develop an in-depth understanding of the individual

Nomothetic Focuses on similarities between groups of individuals. To identify the basic structure of personality. Minimum number of traits necessary universal personality. Quantitative: structure, measures and relationships are key

Goal

Research Methodology

Qualitative case studies

Data Collection

Interviews, diaries, narratives, treatment, session data

Depth, lose no information Difficult to generalise
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Self-report personality questionnaires

General principles, parsimony May not be accurate for any one person. Training needed to analyse profiles. 25

Advantages Disadvantages

Five Approaches
1. 2. 3. 4. Trait / dispositional Biological/evolutionary Psychoanalytic Phenomenological / humanistic / crosscultural 5. Behavioural / social learning / cognitive
Cognitive sometimes separate chapter/approach

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Trait / Dispositional
Key researchers / theorists Shelldon, Allport, Eysenck, Cattell, Gray Key claim Aim for parsimony and to find basic structure Key Features Assumption of stability Lexical approaches, five factor model Measurement is important factor analysis Types, categories of people / traits Biological basis (?)
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Psychoanalytic
Key researchers / theorists Freud, Jung, Adler, Horney Key claim (s) Importance of unconscious motivation Key Features Unconscious processes & conflict Freud - personality 3 structures (id, ego, superego) Adler inferiority 4 personality types, birth order Jung - psyche (opposing forces) Myers-Briggs Horney cultural and social factors, neurotic personalities, 10 needs
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Biological / Evolutionary
Key researchers / theorists Darwin, Gray, Eysenck, Cloniniger, Buss Key claim (s) Adaptation and evolutionary theory Key Features Family studies, twin studies and adoption studies Heritability estimates Neuropsychological evidence Physiological evidence neurotransmittors Animal research
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Phenomenological / humanistic / cross-cultural

Key researchers / theorists Maslow, Rogers (Ellis - ?) Key claim (s) Importance of personal growth Key Features Historical existential philosophy Humans by nature are positive and kind Here and now is the focus Personal responsibility and free will Phenomenology individual experience and consciousness
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Behavioural / social learning / cognitive

Key researchers / theorists Pavlov, Watson, Skinner, Dollard & Miller, Bandura, Rotter, Mischel Key claim (s) Learning is key no inner motives Key Features Person-situation debate Empiricism rigorous methodologies Some cognitive elements Self-regulation & self efficacy Locus of control
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PART 2:

INTELLIGENCE

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Overview
Why does intelligence matter?

Implicit theories of intelligence

What is intelligence?
Psychological definitions

Theories and themes

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Why does intelligence matter?

Ones perception and evaluation of our own and others intelligence matters affects lots of choices and judgements In all of these domains In friendships intelligence plays a role. We want out partners to be In love intelligent. Employers will choose a more intelligence In work employer over a less intelligent
one

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Implicit theories
Definition
Peoples everyday ideas about a particular topic

Importance
1. Influential in everyday life 2. Can give rise to more formal theories 3. Provide avenues to research when explicit theories are wrong 4. Can inform theories about psychological constructs, such as development of intelligence or cross-cultural aspects
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Implicit Theories: Research

Sternberg et al (1981)
61 college students, 63 people entering supermarket, 62 waiting for a train List behaviours characteristic of everyday intelligence, academic intelligence or unintelligence 122 other people rated how well each of the behaviours reflected aspects of intelligence

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Sternberg Results
3 dimensions of intelligence

1. Practical problem solving 2. Verbal ability 3. Social competence

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Practical Problem Solving (PPS)

Ability to be practical and logical Ability to analyse situations well and engage in a decision making process that involves reasons Find alternative solutions and viewpoints to a problem Student has a problem with an essay Good PPS explore the topic, talk to lecturer, re-looking at lecture notes, research key papers and ask questions Bad PPS complain how hard it is and then head to the pub!

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Verbal Ability
Ability to express oneself converse with others confidently Understand correct meanings for words, uses language confidently Competent use of antonyms and analogies Good reading skills

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Social Competence
High levels of knowledge, understanding, competency, motivation, and confidence in terms of themselves and others High self-awareness, good interpersonal skills, good balance between independence and interdependence Takes personal responsibility and has positive regard for others
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1981 Sternberg Study

Laypeople implicit theories
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Practical problem-solving ability Verbal ability Intellectual balance and integration Goal orientation and attainment Contextual intelligence Fluid thought

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Issues with implicit theories

These theories differ significantly:
Between cultures By experts Across the life-span

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Lay-persons Implicit Theories of Intelligence (Taiwanese Chinese)

A general cognitive factor of intelligence Inter-personal intelligence Intra-personal intelligence Intellectual self-assertion Intellectual self-effacement.

(Yang & Sternberg, 1997)

Implicit Theories of Intelligence by Countries Around the World

EXERCISE RATE YOU OWN COUNTRY

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Similarities and Differences Between Expert Implicit Theories of Intelligence Across Academic Disciplines (Sternberg, 1985)

Dictionary Definitions
The ability to understand, a greater or lesser capacity to know or learn. A group of all the functions whose objective is knowledge (sensation, association, memory, imagination, understanding, reason, conscience).

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Problems
First definition aspects related to learning that do not have much to do with intelligence, such as memory in its distinct dimension of the memory manager, are included. The second is definition is excessively generic.

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What is intelligence?
Everyday definitions ability to think abstractly ability to learn quickly ability to adapt to environment

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Definitional Issues
Discussed widely No one definition which is widely accepted Single general ability or does it encompass a wide range of skills, aptitudes and talents?

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What is intelligence?
Psychological definitions: the ability to judge, comprehend, or reason mental abilities that enable one to adapt to, shape, or select ones environment the ability to understand and deal with people, objects and symbols

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The Bell Curve

Controversial Led to many debates APA task force
What is current state of knowledge?

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Overview of Theories
Spearman g factor Thurstone primary mental abilities Gardners theory of multiple intelligences Sternbergs triarchic theory of intelligence Cattell fluid vs crystallised intelligence Emotional intelligence

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Measuring Intelligence
Galton Intelligence Scale Binet-Simon Intelligence Scale Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) and Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC)

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Summary
Next week: psychoanalytic approaches & phenomenological approaches to personality Questions? I am the
third force!

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