SAMPLING AND

DATA COLLECTION
LEARNING OBJECTIVES

At the end of the class student will be able to:

• define population and sample
• enlist the sampling criteria
• explain the factors influencing sampling process
• explain the types of sampling techniques
• explain methods of data collection
• discuss types of validity
• describe types of reliability
• discuss research ethics
• explain pilot study
• discuss data collection procedure
 SAMPLING
• Sampling is a process of selecting
representative units from an entire population of
study.
• In research studies it is not always possible to study
an entire population; therefore the researcher
draws a representative part of a population through
sampling process.
 TERMINOLOGIES
• Population: It is the aggregation of all
the units in which a researcher is interested.
Population is the set of people to which the
results of a research are to be generalized.
 Cont…
• Target population: It consists of total no of people
or objects which are meeting the designated
set of criteria. It is aggregate of all the cases with
certain phenomenon about which the researcher
would like to make generalization.
 Cont…
• Accessible population: It is aggregate of cases
that conform to designated criteria and
also accessible as subjects for a study.

• Sampling: It is the process of selecting a

representative segment of the population
under study.
 Cont…
• Sample: It is representative unit of a target
population, which is to be worked upon by
researcher during their study.

• Element/Subject: The individual entities that

comprise the samples and population are known
as elements.
 Cont…
• Sampling error:
There may be fluctuations in the values of
the statistics of characteristics from one
sample to another or even those drawn from
the same population.
• Sampling bias:
Distortion that arises when a sample is
not representative of the population from
which it is drawn
 Purposes of Sampling
• Economical: With a help of sampling the
researcher can save lots of time, money
and resources to study a phenomenon.
• Improved Quality of Data: When researcher is
handling the information from only a part
of the population understudy.
It is easier to maintain a quality of the
research worker which would not be possible
in case the entire population was involved.
 Cont…
• Quick study results: studying an entire
population itself will take a lot of time
and generating research results of a large
mass will be almost impossible as most
research studies have time limits.
 Cont…
• Precision and accuracy of data: conducting a
study on an entire population
provides researchers with voluminous
data and maintaining precision of data
becomes a cumbersome task, while carrying
a study on a part of the population
helps the researcher to generate more
precise data, where formulation of the
interpretation of data becomes much
easier.
 Characteristics
• Representative: Representativeness of the
sample makes it possible to generalize the
findings for the population.

• Free from bias and errors: A good sample is one

which is free from deliberate selection of the subjects
for study.
 Cont…
• No substitutions and Incompleteness: A
sample is said to be good if once a
subject is selected for the study, it is neither
replaced nor is it incomplete in any
aspect of researcher’s interest.
• Appropriate sample size: It is believed that in
quantitative studies the larger the sample
size better is the probability of the
goodness of sample.
 SAMPLING FRAME
Prior to selecting a sample researcher needs to define a sampling frame,
which is a list of all the units of the population of interest. Researcher
can only apply research findings to the population defined by the
sampling frame.
ELEMENT
TARGET POPULATION
A single member of a population is called as element.
Elements or members of a population are selected
ACCESSIBLE from a sampling frame.
POPULATION

SAMPLING
FRAME SAMPLING FRAME
It is a listing of all elements of a population.
Researcher has to prepare a sampling frame by listing
SAMPLE all members of the accessible population.
QUALITIES OF A GOOD SAMPLING FRAME
SAMPLE ELIGIBILITY CRITERIA
INCLUSION CRITERIA
Attributes of subjects that are
essential for their selection to
participate.
Inclusion criteria removes the
influence of specific confounding
variables.

EXCLUSION CRITERIA
Characteristics or responses of
subjects that require their removal as
subjects.
DETERMINANTS OF SAMPLE ELIGIBILITY
CRITERIA
PURPOSES OF SAMPLING
 CRITERIA FOR GOOD SAMPLING
HOMOGENOUS
• Selected samples from the population should be homogenous and should not have
any differences when compared with the population.

OPTIMUM SAMPLE SIZE

• Reasonable number of items is to be included in the sample to make the result

more reliable.

TRUE REPRESENTATIVE

• The selected sample should have the similar characteristics as the original
population from which it has been selected.

MUTUALLY EXCLUSIVE

• The individual items composing the sample should be independent from each other.
 STEPS IN SAMPLING
1. PROCESS
IDENTIFY THE TARGET POPULATION (POPULATION OF
INTEREST)
Target population refers to the group of individuals or objects to which
researchers are interested in generalizing their findings. Researcher need
to identify population of interest based on research topic.
2.IDENTIFY THE ACCESSIBLE
POPULATION (SOURCE POPULATION )
The accessible population is the group of individuals or objects, from
which the sample might be taken. A well-defined population reduces the
probability of including the participants who all are not suitable for the
research objective.
3. SELECT A SAMPLING FRAME
It is the list of all units in a study population from which the sample is
taken. For example, researcher takes toddlers of three playschools in
sampling frame to conduct study.
6. DETERMINE THE SAMPLE SIZE
The sample size is simply the number of units in the sample. Sample
size determination depends on many factors such as time, cost, and
facility. In general, larger samples are better, but they also require more
resources. Follow the principle of optimum sample size.
7. EXECUTE THE SAMPLING PLAN
Once all the above stated steps are completed, researcher can use all that
information to choose sample for the research study.
 Types of Sampling Techniques
SAMPLING TECHNIQUE

Probability Non probability

Simple Random Purposive

Stratified Random Convenient

Systemic Random Consecutive

Cluster Sampling Quota

Sequential Sampling Snowball Sampling
 NON PROBABILITY
• Researchers select elements by non- random
methods. In this method the sample elements are
arbitrarily selected by the researcher because in
his judgement the elements thus chosen will most
effectively represent the population.
 Features
• In this technique the samples are gathered in a
process that does not give all the individuals in
the population equal chances of being selected.
• In this subjects are usually selected on the
basis of their accessibility or by the purposive
personal judgement of the researcher.
• The downside of this is that an
proportion
unknownof the entire population is not
sampled. This entails that the sample may or may
not represent the entire population accurately.
 Uses
• This type of sampling can be used when
demonstrating that a particular trait exists in the
population.
• It can be used when randomization is not
possible like when the population is almost
limitless.
• It can be used when the research does not aim
to generate results that will be used to create
generalizations pertaining to entire population.
• It is also useful when the researcher has
limited budget, time and workforce.
 Purposive Sampling
• Is more commonly known as judgmental
or authoritative sampling.
• In this technique, samples are chosen by
choice not by chance, through a judgment made
the researcher based on his or her knowledge
about the population.
• In this, the researcher believes that some
subjects are fit for research compared to other
individuals. This is the reason why they are
purposively chosen as subjects.
 Uses
• It is usually used when a limited number of
individuals possess the trait of interest.
• If the researcher knows a reliable
professional that he or she thinks is capable of
assembling a representative sample.
 Merits
• Simple to draw sample
• Useful in explorative studies
• Save resources
• Requires less field work
 Demerits
• Requires considerable knowledge about
the population under study.
• It is not always reliable sample
• There is no way to evaluate the reliability
of the expert or authority
• It is usually biased since no randomization
was used as obtaining the sample.
 Convenience Sampling
• In this, subjects are selected because of their
convenient accessibility and proximity to the
researcher. The subjects are selected just
because they are easiest to recruit for the study and
the researcher did not consider selecting subjects that
are representative of the entire population.
 Uses
• It allows the researcher to obtain basic data
and trends for his study without complications.
• It also useful in documenting a particular
quality of a substance that occurs within a
given sample
 Merits
• It is considered, easiest, cheapest & least time
consuming.
• It may help in saving time, money &
resources.
 Demerits
• Chances of sampling bias
• It does not provide the representative sample from
the population of the study.
• Findings generated from these samples cannot be
generalized on the population
 Consecutive Sampling
• It is similar to convenience sampling expect
that it seeks to include all accessible subjects as part
of the sample.
• This technique can be considered as the best
because it includes all the subjects that are available,
which makes the sample a better representation of the
entire population.
 Merits
• There is little effort on the part of
researcher
very when performing
sampling technique.
• It is not expensive, not time consuming.
• Ensures more representatives of the
selected sample.
 Demerits
• The researcher has no set plans about the sample
size and sampling schedule.
• It always does not guarantee the selection of
representative sample.
• Results from this technique cannot be used to create
conclusions
 Quota Sampling
• In this the researcher ensures equal or
proportionate representation of subjects,
depending on which trait is considered as the
basis of the quota.
 Uses
• The samples allow the researcher to sample
a subgroup that is of great interest to the study.
• If a study aims to investigate a
characteristic of a certain subgroup, this type
of sampling is the ideal technique.
 Merits
• Economically cheap
• No need to approach all the candidates.
• Suitable of studies where the field work
is possible
 Demerits
• Not possible to estimate error
• Bias is possible
• In the process of sampling these subgroups, other
traits in the sample may be over presented.
 Snow ball Sampling
• In this technique, the researchers used to
identify potential subjects in studies where
subjects are hard to locate such as commercial sex
workers, drug abusers etc…
• The process of snow ball sampling is much
like asking samples to nominate another person
with the same trait. The researcher then observes
the nominated subjects & continues in the same
way until obtaining sufficient number of subjects.
 Merits
• The referral process
researcher
chain allows the reach
difficult
to to sample when using
populations thatother
aresampling
methods.
• The process is cheap, simple and cost efficient.
• The technique needs little planning and lesser
work force.
 Demerits
• Researcher has little control over the sampling
method
• Representatives of the sample is
not guaranteed
• Sampling bias is also a fear of
researchers when using this sampling
technique.
 Probability Sampling
• It involves random selection of the elements of the
population. In this, every subject in a population
has equal chance to be selected as the study sample.
 Features
• The samples are gathered in a process that
gives all the individuals in the
population equal chances of being selected.
• The researcher must guarantee that
individual every an equal
has selection. opportunity for
• The advantage of using a random sample is the
absence of both systematic and sampling bias.
 Simple Random Sampling Technique
• In this, every member of population has an equal
chance of being selected as subjects. The
entire process of sampling is done in a single
step, with each subject selected independently
of the other members of the population.
Pre requisites:
• Population must be homogeneous
• Researcher must have list of elements of
accessible population
 Subtypes
Lottery Method:
• In this method, each member of the population
is assigned a unique number; each number
is placed in a bowl and mixed
thoroughly. The blind folded researcher
then picks numbered tag from the bowl.
All the individuals having numbers
picked by the researcher are subjects of
the study.
 Cont…
Use of Table of Random Numbers:
• In random table, several numbers are in rows and
columns. Researcher initially prepares a
numbered list of the elements of the population
and with a blind fold chooses a number from
table.
• The same procedure is continued until the desired
no of subjects is achieved.
Use of Computer:
• Subjects are selected with the help of computer
and by random table.
 Cont…
Merits:
• It is ease of assembling the samples
• It is also considered a fair way of
selecting a sample from given population.
• It requires minimum knowledge
about population
• It is free from sampling errors
• This is one of the most unbiased
probability methods of sampling
 Cont…
Demerits:
• This method does not make use of knowledge about a
population
• Lots of procedure needs to be done before
sampling is accomplished.
• Expensive & time consuming process
 Stratified Random Sampling
• This method is used for heterogeneous
population. In this researcher divides the
entire population into different
homogeneous subgroups or strata and
then randomly selects the final subjects
proportionally from the different strata.
.
 Cont…
Proportionate Stratified Random Sampling:
• In this, the sample chosen from each stratum is in
proportion to the size of total population.
• The sample size of each stratum in this technique is
proportionate to the population size of the stratum
when viewed against the entire population. This
means that the each stratum has the same sampling
fraction.
Disproportionate Stratified Random Sampling:
• The samples chosen from each stratum are not in
proportion to size of total population in that stratum.
The only difference between these two stratified
random sampling is their sampling fraction.
 Cont…
Merits:
• It ensures representation of all groups in a
population
• Researchers also employ this sampling when they
want to observe existing relationship between two
or more groups.
• With this sampling researcher can
representatively sample even the smallest and
most in accessible subgroups in population.
• There is a high statistical precision compared to
simple random sampling.
 Cont…
Demerits:
• Proportionate stratification requires accurate
information on the proportion of population
in each stratum.
• Large population must be available from
which to select subjects
 Systematic Random Sampling
• It can be likened to an arithmetic progression
where in the difference between any
two consecutive numbers is the same.
• It involves the selection of every kth cases from
list of group.
• K= N/n= no of subjects in target
population/size of sample
 Cont…
Merits:
• Convenient & simple to carry out
• Distribution of sample is spread evenly
over entire population
• Less cumbersome, time consuming & is cheaper
Demerits:
• If first subject is not randomly selected then
it becomes non random sampling technique.
• Sometime this may result in biased sample.
 Cluster Sampling
• Cluster sampling means random selection of
sampling unit consisting of population
elements. Then from each selected sampling
unit, a sample of population elements is
drawn by either simple random selection or
stratified random sampling.
• This method is used in case where the population
elements are scattered over a wide area & it
is impossible to obtain list of all elements.
Types:
One stage cluster sample
Two stage cluster sample
 Cont…
One stage cluster sample:
• This occurs when the researcher includes all
the samples from all the randomly
selected clusters as sample.
Two stage cluster sample:
• This occurs when the researcher only selects a
few numbers of samples from each cluster
by simple or systematic random sampling.
 Cont…
Merits:
• This technique is cheap, quick & easy for
large population.
• Large population can be studied & require only list of the
members
• Enables investigators to use existing divisions such
as districts, villages/towns etc…
• Same cluster can be used again for study.
 Cont…
Demerits:
• This has a possibility of high
sampling error.
technique
• If small homogeneous population is
under study this technique is not at all useful
 Sequential Sampling
• In this, the sample size is not fixed, the
investigator initially selects small sample & tries
out to make inferences; if not able to draw results, he or
she adds more subjects until clear cut inferences can
be drawn.
 Cont…
Merits:
• Facilitates to conduct study on best
possible smallest representative sample.
• Helping in ultimately finding the inferences
of the study.
Demerits:
• It is not possible to study a phenomenon which
is needed to be studied at one point of time.
• Requires repeated entries into the field to collect
sample.
 Sampling Error
It is the deviation of the selected sample from
the true characteristics, traits, behaviors, qualities
or figures the entire population.
Reasons for Sampling Error:
• Researchers draw different subjects from the
same population but the subjects have
individual difference.
• Biased sampling procedure
• Chance or randomization.
• Systematic error.
 Cont…
Sampling Bias
• It is a tendency to favor a selection of sample units that
possess particular characteristics.
Types:
• Self-selection Bias
• Exclusion Bias
• Healthy User Bias
 Cont…
• Self-selection Bias: When the participants in
the study have some kind of control over
the study to participate or not.
• Exclusion Bias: This happens when some
people of the group are eliminated from
the study.
• Healthy User Bias: This happens when the
sample selected has more likelihood to
be healthier as compared to general
population.
 Problems of Sampling
• Sampling errors
• Lack of sample representativeness.
• Difficulty in estimation of sample size.
• Lack of knowledge about the sampling process
• Lack of resources.
• Lack of co-operation.
• Lack of existing appropriate sampling frames for
larger population.
• Callous (casual) approach of researcher
towards sampling process.
 Data
• Data are the observable and measurable facts that
provide information about the phenomenon under
study.
• In research studies two types of data are collected
primary and secondary sources.
Data Sources:
• A quality of research studies requires that highly
reliable and valid data are collected. Information
collected from different research studies generally
depends on various sources like primary and
secondary sources.
 Types
Primary Sources:
• Data directly collected from research units, which
may be individuals, objects or programs.
• They provide the first hand information that is
collected by the researcher directly from the
respondents or the situations which may be
collected through interviews, questioning,
observation, etc….
 Types
Secondary Sources:
• They are data collected from either internal or
external secondary sources.
• External sources involved existing materials such
as published or unpublished records
• Published records may include journals,
magazines, censes reports… Unpublished records
may include dissertations, patient records,
thesis…
• Internal secondary sources are also known as
private documents may include bio graphics,
personal diaries, letters, etc…
Methods & Tools of Data Collection
Methods of data collection:
• The various steps used for gathering and
analyzing data in a research investigation are known
as the methods of data collection.
Technique of data collection:
• The means of gathering data with the use of
specific tools that are used in given methods
 Instruments/Tools of data collection
• Instrument is a device used to measure the
concept of interest in a research project that
the researcher uses to collect data.
Method Tools
Interview Interview schedule, opinionnaire

Questioning Questionnaire, Opinionnaire, Attitude scale,

VAS Observation Rating scale, Check lists, Anecdotes

Bio physiological In vivo & In vitro bio physiological

methods Other methods Projective technique, Q- sorts

 Selection of methods of data
collection
• The nature of phenomenon under
study
• Type of research subjects
• Type of research study
• Purpose of research study
• Size of the study samples
 Cont…
• Distribution of target population
• Time frame of the study
• Literacy level of the subjects
• Availability of resource and manpower
• Researchers knowledge level and competences
 Interview
Definition:
• An interview is a conversation between
two or more people, where questions are asked
by the interviewer to obtain information from
the interview.
• It may be defined as the two
systematic conversation way
between investigator informantand initiated
an an
obtaining information relevant to specific for
study.
 Characteristics
• The participants, the interviewer and the respondents
are stranger.
• It is a mode of obtaining verbal answers to questions
put verbally.
• Investigator records information furnished
by respondents
• It is a conversation with specific purpose
• It should not need face to face because it can
be conducted over telephone also
• It is a conversation between two persons and is
not always limited to a single respondent.
• It is not a standardized process. It can be
modified according to situation.
 Benefits
• Provide in-depth and detailed information
• Permits greater depth of response
• Data from illiterate subjects
• Higher response
• Clarify misunderstandings
• Ask questions at several level
• Helps to gather other supplementary information
• Use of special devices
• Accuracy can be checked
• Flexible and adaptable
• Unable to write
 Types
Structured Interview:
• It is a mean of data collection in which the interview
made with a detailed, standardized schedule.
Same questions are put to all the respondents and in
the same order.
Characteristics:
• It is formalized and has limited set of questions
• Each interview is presented exactly with
same questions in same order
• It increases the reliability and credibility of
research data
 Cont…
Merits:
• Data from one interview to the next one
are easily comparable.
• Recording and coding data does not pose
any problem.
• Attention is not diverted to irrelevant and
time consuming conversation.
Demerits:
• It tends to lose the spontaneity of
natural conversation.
• The scope of exploration of information of data
is limited.
 Cont…
Unstructured Interview
• It is a method where in questions can be changed to
meet the respondent’s intelligence, understanding
and beliefs. Questions are changed based on
how each individual person responds to the
questions.
Characteristics:
• It is not formalized & has open ended questions.
• The aim is to explore the information from
the respondents.
• It increases the reliability & credibility of
research data.
• It facilitates natural un obstructed proceedings of the
interview procedure.
 Cont…
Merits:
• It is less prone to interviewer’s bias.
• It provides greater opportunity to explore
the problem in an unrestricted manner.
• It is useful for information on
gathering sensitive topics.
Demerits:
• The data cannot be
• comparable
Time may be wasted in
unproductive conversation.
 Cont…
Semi Structured Interview
• It is a flexible method that allows
questions to be brought new up
interview depending upon the situation.
Characteristics: during
the which
• Interviewer prepares an interview guide,
is an informal list of topics and questions
that the interviewer can ask in different
ways from different participants.
• Interview guide helps researcher to focus on
 Cont…
Indepth Interview
• This is an intensive and investigative interview
conducted and aimed at studying the respondent’s
opinion & emotions on the basis of interview guide.
 Cont…
Focused Group Interview
• It is an unstructured group interview technique
where 8-12 members are brought together
under the guidance of the trained interviewer, to
focus on a specific phenomenon.
Characteristics:
• It consists of 8-12 members, who
homogeneous are in terms of
socioeconomic characteristics.
demographic &
• Duration of interview is 1 and half to 2
hours.
 Cont…
• All information including facial expression
& body language are recorded.
• It has a moderator to lead the discussion.
• It is free from inflexibility of formal methods.
• There is plenty of opportunity for respondents
to present their views.
 Cont…
Merits:
• Wide range of information is collected.
• It stimulates new ideas and creative concepts.
• One person’s comments may trigger a response from
another one.
• It increases excitement.
• Participants feel more comfortable to answer in a
group with similar interests.
• It involves many participants at one time.
 Cont…
Demerits:
• There are chances of client and researcher
bias.
• It is difficult to moderate.
• It is difficult to code, analyze & interpret.
• It is not a representative of general population.
 Cont…
Telephone Interview
• This method of collecting information consists
in contacting respondents on telephone itself.
Merits:
• More flexible & quick way of
obtaining information.
• Cost is relatively less.
• Access to the respondent is easy through
a telephone directory.
• No field staff is required.
 Cont…
Demerits:
• Difficult to establish rapport
between respondent and the interviewer.
• Surveys are limited to respondents who
have telephone facilities.
• Respondent’s characteristics, facial expression
and environment cannot be observed.
• Possibility of bias of interviewer is more.
 Interviewing Process
Preparation for Interview
• Fix-up appointment
• Appearance and dress
• Familiarity with interview schedule.
Pre Interview Introduction
• Researcher introduces himself to all respondents
respectfully.
• Identify respondents by name.
• Choose a setting with as little distraction
as possible
• Explain purpose of the interview
• Indicate how long the interview usually takes
 Cont…
Developing Rapport
• After introduction, the researchers start
developing rapport with respondents. This is
developed through confidence-building &
understanding the concerns of respondents.
Carrying interview forward
• Start the interview
• Ask only one question at a time
• Repeat the question if necessary
• Listen carefully to the subjects answer
 Cont…
• Observe the subjects facial
expressions, gestures and tone of voice
• Do not show signs of surprise, shock or anger
• Do not hurry the interview, if sessions is
too prolonged, introduce a stimulus.
Recording the interview
• Good information can be taken by note-taking
• Shorthand or tape recorder can be used
to record the response.
 Cont…
Closing the interview
• After the interview, a polite leave of the
respondent by friendly smile & saying
good bye.
 Cont…
Advantages
• They are used to obtain people’s
feelings, perceptions and opinions.
• High response rate is achieved
• Respondents own words are recorded
• Meaning of questions can be clarified
Disadvantages
• Time consuming and costly affairs
• High degree chances of interviews bias
 Questionnaire
• A questionnaire is structured instrument
consisting of a series of questions prepared
by researcher that a research subject is
asked to complete, to gather data from
individuals about knowledge, attitude and
feeling.
• A questionnaire is a structured self report
paper and pencil instrument that a
research subject is asked to complete.
 Types
• Open Ended Questions
• Closed Ended Questions
– Dichotomous Questions
– Multiple Choice Questions
– Cafeteria Questions
– Rank Order Questions
– Contingency Questions
 Cont…
Open Ended Questions
• They are the questions which provide
opportunity to the respondents to express their
opinions and answers in their own way.
• Ex: State your opinion about the quality of health
care services in UP?
 Cont…
Closed Ended Questions
• These questions offer respondents a number of
alternative replies, from which the subjects must
choose the one that most likely matches the
appropriate answer.
 Cont…
Dichotomous Questions:
• This requires respondents to make a choice
between two responses such as yes or no, true or
false.
Multiple Choice Questions:
• These questions require respondents to make a choice
between more than two responses.
 Cont…
Cafeteria Questions:
• They allow respondents to select a
response that most closely correspondents to
their view.
Ex: Q: what do you hormone
think about replacement theory?
• It is dangerous, it should be avoided
• One should be cautious while using
it
• I am uncertain about my views
• It is beneficial, should be promoted
 Cont…
Rank Order Questions:
• These questions ask respondents to rank their
responses from most favorable to
least favorable.
Ex: Q: what according to you is most important
for your life?
• Money
• Education
• Family
 Cont…
Contingency Questions:
• A question is asked only if
respondent gives a particular
further the
previous question. response
Ex: Q: Are you stressed?
• No to
• Yes If yes
Why………………..
 Guidelines
• It must be developed exactly in
accordance with study objectives
• It should begin with for the
instructions respondents to provide
responses
• It
• It should
should concise, precise & brief respondents’
be accordance
with knowledge
• It should be very clear & simple
 Cont…
• As far as possible avoid open ended questions
• Controversial and ambiguous questions should be
avoided
• There should be logical sequence of the questions
• Questions should from general to more specific
• Avoid negative and double questions
• Use positive statements
 Cont…
Advantages
• They are cost effective
• They are ease to analyze
• They require less time energy
and administer to
• They reduce bias
• They are used for larger sample
size
 Cont…
Disadvantages
• Not suitable for all
• Low response rate
• Provides only superficial
information
• Chances of misinterpretation
• People can lie and answer vaguely
 ATTITUDE SCALES
• A scale is a device designed to assign a
numeric score to people to place them on
a continuum with respect to attributes
being measured.
 Types
• Likert Scale
• Semantic Differential
Scale
• Visual Analogue Scale
• Observations
• Rating Scales
• Checklist
 Likert Scale
• It was named after a psychologist Rensis
Likert, who developed it in 1932, as a
psychological concept measurement scale.
• Primarily original version of this scale was
developed with five point scale
(Strongly Agree, Agree, Uncertain,
Disagree, Strongly Disagree). Now in
recent time one can even observe the
likert scale with four points
(Strongly Agree, Moderately Agree,
Uncertain, Disagree) to seven points
 Cont…
Definition:
• It is a composite measurement scale used to
measure attitude, values and feelings of the people
that involve summation of scores on the set of
positive and negative declarative statements
regarding measuring variables to which respondents
are asked to indicate the degree of agreement or
disagreement.
 Cont…
Uses:
• Used measure the attitude, value and
feelings
to of the people about specific concepts.
• Used to have quantified measurement of
qualified attributes
• It collects the opinions of the people with
various attitudes, emotions and
feelings towards a particular concept
 Cont…
Characteristics:
• Psychological measurement tool
• Illustrate in nature
• Neutral statements
• Bipolar scaling method – Positive
and Negative Declarative statements
• Measurement of specific number of
scaling categories.
 Cont…
Advantages:
• Easy to construct and administer
• It is considered more reliable and valid tool
• Less time consuming
Disadvantages:
• Respondents may feel forced to answer
the questions
• Feelings may not be fully assessed
• Casual approach of respondents may
provide misleading data
 Semantic Differential Scale
• It is a type of rating scale designed to measure
the connotative meaning of objects, events
and concepts. These connotations are used to
derive the respondents attitude towards
the objects, events and concepts.
Usage:
• Patient Satisfaction Survey
• Customer Satisfaction Survey
• Employee Survey
• Marketing Survey
 Cont…
Advantages
• A convenient method to assess the beliefs,
attitudes and values in quantitative form
• Easy to administer
• Provide reasonable valid and reliable
quantitative data
Disadvantages:
• It is difficult to select the relevant concepts
• It is time consuming to find appropriate
 Visual Analogue Scale
• It is a tool used to help a person rate the
intensity of certain sensations and feelings such
as pain.
• VAS is a self reported measure consisting simply
of 10cm line with statement at each end
representating one extreme of the dimension being
measured.
Uses:
• To measure the level of pain, anxiety, mood, quality
of sleep and functional ability
 Cont…
Advantages
• It is reliable and valid tool to measure
the intensity of certain sensations and feelings.
• The quantitative assessment is highly
subjective phenomenon is by
possible scale this
Disadvantages
• Cannot be used for comparing results for
a group of individuals
• In measuring pain the scale does not afford the
 Observations
• It is a way of gathering data by
behavior,
watching events or noting physical
characteristics in their settings.
Observations can be natural
overt (everyone knows
that they are being observed) or covert
(everyone do not know that they are being
observed).
Definition
• It is a technique for collecting all the data or
acquiring information through occurences
that can be observed through senses
with or
 Cont…
Uses:
• To understood an ongoing process or situation
• To gather data on individual behavior
or interaction between people
• To know about a physical setting
• Data collection where other methods are
not possible
 Types
• Structured Observation
• Unstructured Observation
• Participant Observation
• Non Participant Observation
 Cont…
Structured Observation:
• In this researcher in advance prepares a
structured or semi structured tool to
observe the phenomenon under study. It
is generally carried out by using tools
like checklist, rating scale etc.
Unstructured Observation:
• It is used for complete and nonspecific
observation, which is very well known by
the researcher. The tools are used by
researcher are
 Cont…
Participant Observation:
• In this observer may live or work in field and
actively participate in ongoing activities for
the extended period.
Non Participant Observation:
• In this observer works as an eaves dropper
(secretly listening or observing), where an
attempt is made to observe people
without interacting with them.
• It is a technique where observer is not a
 Cont…
Planning for observation
• Determine the focus
• Design a system for data collection
• Select the sites
• Select the observer
• Train the observer
• Time your observation appropriately
 Cont…
Advantages:
• Collect data where and when an event is
occurring
• Allows researcher to see what people do rather than
relying on what people say, what did
Disadvantages:
• Susceptible to observer bias
• Can be expensive and time consuming
• Does not increase understanding of why
 Rating Scales
• They are refers to a scale with a set of opinion, which
describes varying degree of the dimensions
of an attitude being observed.
• Rating scales is a device by which judgment may
be qualified or an opinion concerning a trait can be
systematized.
 Types
• Graphic Rating Scale
• Descriptive Rating Scale
• Numerical Rating Scale
• Comparative Rating
Scale
 Cont…
Graphic Rating Scale:
• In this scale the performance is printed
horizontally at various points from lowest
to highest.
Descriptive Rating Scale:
• This type of rating scale do not use number but
divide the assessment into series of
verbal phrases to indicate the level of
performance.
 Cont…
Numerical Rating Scale:
• It divides the evaluation criteria into a fixed
number of points, but defines only numbers
at the extreme.
Comparative Rating Scale:
• The researcher makes a judgment about an
attribute of a person by comparing it with
that of a similar another person.
 Cont…
Advantages:
• Easy to administer and score the
measured attributes.
• It can be easily used for a large group
• It may be used for the assessment of
interest, attitudes and personal characteristics.
• They are adaptable and flexible
research instruments.
Disadvantages:
• It is difficult or dangerous to fix up
rating about many aspects of individuals
 Checklist
• A checklist is a simple instrument consisting
prepared list of expected items of
performances or attributes where are
checked by researcher for the presence or
absence
Characteristics:
• Observe one respondent at one time
• Clearly specify the characteristics of behavior to
be observed
• The observer should be trained how to observe
 Cont…
Advantages:
• Checklists allow inter individual comparisons
• It provides a simple method to
record observation
• Adaptable to subject matter areas
• Helpful in evaluating procedural work
• It have objectivity to evaluate characteristics
• Decreases the chance of errors in observation
 Cont…
Disadvantages:
• Does not indicate quality of performance
• Only limited component of overall
clinical performance can be evaluated
• It has limited use in qualitative research
 Bio Physiological Methods
Definition
• The method involves the collection of bio
physiological data from subjects by using
the specialized equipments to determine
physical and biological status of subjects.
Purpose:
• To study physiological process
• To study physiological outcome of
nursing care
• To evaluate nursing intervention
 Types
In vivo Bio Physiological Methods
• The measurements are directly performed
over the organism or study subject by using
specialized instruments or equipments.
• Ex: BP, ECG
In vitro Bio Physiological Methods
• They are the measurements carried out
outside the organism or study subject by using
specialized instruments or equipments.
• Ex: Radiological
Measurements,
 Cont…
Advantages:
• They are relatively more accurate and error less
• They are more objective in nature
• Provide valid for targeted variables Ex:
thermometer for temperature
• Easily available in hospital settings.
 Cont…
Disadvantages:
• Some of instruments are very costly
• It requires significant amount of
training, knowledge and experience
• The results produced by these instruments may
be affected by environment
• The use may cause fear and anxiety
among participants
• Use of some method may have harmful effect
 Projective Technique
Definition:
• These are the methods of measuring
psychological attributes by providing
respondents with unstructured stimuli to which
they respond.
Types:
• Association Technique
• Completion Technique
• Construction Technique
• Expressive Technique
 Cont…
Association Technique:
• This technique requires the subject to respond at
the presentation of stimulus (word) with first
thing that comes to mind, so as to extract
information regarding words that have
maximum association
Completion Technique:
• In this technique the subject is with stimulus and
which is incomplete and the subject is required
to complete it as he or she wishes.
Sentence Completion Test
Story Completion Test
 Construction Technique
• In this the subject is required to produce or
construct something at direction, usually a story
or a picture.
– Thematic Appreciation Technique
– Rosenzweig Test
– Rorschash Test
– Holtzman Ink Blot Test
– Tomkins – Horn picture Arrangement Test
 Cont…
Thematic Appreciation Technique:
• It consists of set of pictures of normal
everyday event and the respondents are
asked to describe what they think that the
pictures represent.
Rosenzweig Test:
• This test uses a cartoon format wherein we
have series of cartoons with no words
inserted in balloons. The respondents are
asked to put their own word in an empty
balloon space.
 Cont…
Rorschash Test:
• This test consists of 10 cards having prints of ink
blot where in the design happens to be symmetrical
but meaningless. The respondents are asked to
describe what they perceive in them.
Holtzman Ink Blot Test:
• It consists of 45 cards which are based on color,
movement, shading and other factors. One
response per card is interpreted at three
 Cont…
Tomkins – Horn picture Arrangement Test:
• This test is designed for group administrations
with five plates, each containing three
sketches that may be arranged in
different ways to portray sequences
which participants considers reasonable.
 Expressive Technique
A subject is asked to role-play, act, draw or
paint a specific concept or situation. This
technique focus on the matter in which the
subject constructs something rather than on
what it represents.
 Choice Ordering
• The subjects have to explain why certain things
are most important or rank or order or categorize
certain factors associated with topic under research.
 Miscellaneous Type
Drawing a picture:
• Each participant is given a blank piece of paper and a
pencil and is asked to draw a picture that might
offer some insights on behavior and attitudes.
Using Fantasy and Daydreaming:
• Participants are provided asked to describe topic
related fantasies and daydreams in order to
surface characteristics or features that are
important to the study.
Clay modeling:
• Participants are provided with different colored clays
and are requested to give shape to them to
reflect their feelings and thought.
 Cont…
Advantages:
• They can make a significant contribution if the
research is concerned with beliefs,
values, motivation and personality.
• These techniques provide a view of overall
functioning of individuals
• This provide new energy in a group discussion
and lighten the mood
• Respondents do not perceive right or wrong
answers to the exercise and are encouraged
to respond with a wide range of ideas
 Cont…
Disadvantages:
• The complexity of the data and the
corresponding skills required of the researcher
• They are expensive to administer because highly
skilled research staff have to be employed
• It is difficult to get the subjects to project
themselves into the roles the researcher wish them
to assume.
 DEFINITIONS OF RELIABILITY
 Reliability is defined as the ability of the instrument to create
reproducible results. It is the absence of errors in measurement
(Talbot).
 Reliability is the degree of consistency or dependability with which
an instrument measures the attribute, it is designed to measure
(Polit).
 Reliability is defined as the proportion of accuracy to inaccuracy in
a measurement (Treece and Treece).
 TYPES OF RELIABILITY MEASURE

Stability

• It is the extent to which similar results are obtained on two separate occasions(test–retest
reliability)

Equivalence

• Different observers scoring a behavior or event using the same instrument (interrater-
reliability).

Internal consistency

• Extent that items measure the same trait and nothing else.
 TYPES OF RELIABILITY MEASURE

RELIABILITY

Internal
Consistency Equivalance
Stability
1. Cronback alpha 1. Parallel
1. Test-retest
2. Split-half 2. Rater (Kappa)
3. KR-20
 STABILITY MEASURES OF
RELIABILITY
It is the extent to which similar results
are obtained on two separate occasions.
The reliability estimate focus on the
instrument’s susceptibility to
extraneous influences over time, such
as participant fatigue.
Test-Retest Reliability It is determined by
administering a test at two different points in
time to the same individual and determining the
correlation or strength of association of the two
sets of scores. Reliability coefficient is an index
of magnitude of test’s reliability that can be
computed using correlation coefficient statistics.
The possible value of correlation coefficient may
range from -1 through .00 to +1. (Negative to
zero and zero to positive correlation coefficient).
 INTERNAL CONSISTENCY

Internal consistency gives an estimate of the

equivalence of sets of items from the same test
(e.g., a set of questions aimed at assessing
quality of life or disease severity). The
coefficient of internal consistency provides an
estimate of the reliability of measurement and
is based on the assumption that items
measuring the same construct should correlate.
 EQUIVALENCY

Reliability can also be

assessed through equivalence.
The most common form of
equivalence reliability
assessment is through parallel
forms, also called alternative
forms. Parallel forms
reliability uses two versions of
one instrument with one
sample at one time.
 To assess the parallel forms reliability,
the researcher administers two forms of
the instrument at the same time to one
sample. To be considered parallel forms
the instruments must be developed in
an identical manner using the same
objectives. The instrument must also
1. PARALLEL have approximately equal standard
FORMS deviations and means as well as equal
RELIABILITY correlations with a third variable found
in the population under study. The
researcher administers the two
instruments to the sample at one time.
The order in which the instruments are
given should be varied to balance the
error rate for fatigue or testing effects.
2. Rater Reliability
Equivalence of scoring can also be assessed by
raters. There are two types of rater reliability.

Inter-rater
Two raters are used with one rating instrument.

Intra-rater reliability
Intra-rater reliability uses one rater to rate the
same instrument or observation twice.
a. Inter-Rate Reliability (also called inter-observer agreement)
With inter-rater reliability two or more trained raters are asked to
independently rate the same subject or even at the same time using the
same instrumentation or plan. The score obtained are then used to obtain
a percentage of agreement between the rater. If the rating instrument is
reliable then the scores obtained by the two raters should be
comparable. The researcher looks for a reliability assessment score of
70% agreement or higher. Percentage of agreement tends to over-
estimate reliability because the possibility of chance agreement is on the
low side of acceptability; the researcher should be cautious in assuming
the reliability.
b. Intra-Rater Reliability
Intra-rater reliability relies on one rater to rate a subject or event twice.
For example, videotape of a mother-infant interaction could be viewed
and scored by the same person on two separate occasions. Again the
percentage of agreement is the most common method of statistical
procedure to assess reliability.
FACTORS INFLUENCING RELIABILITY
Time interval
between testing
Condition
Variation with under which
the testing measurements
situation were obtained

Objectivity Length of test

Group Difficulty of the

Homogeneity tests
 VALIDITY
DEFINITIONS OF VALidity
 Treece and Treece “Validity refers to an instrument or test actually
testing what it is supposed to test.”
 Polit and hungler “Validity refers to the degree to which
an instrument measures what it is supposed to be measuring.”
 American psychological foundation“Validity is the
appropriateness, meaningfulness and usefulness of the inferences
made from the scoring of the instrument.”
RELATION BETWEEN VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY
These two terms, reliability and validity, are often used interchangeably
when they are not related to statistics. Let us understand the relation
between these two terms. (figure below)
 Reliability is another term for consistency. If one person takes
the same personality test several times and always receives the
same results, the test is reliable.
 A test is valid if it measures what it is supposed to measure. If
the results of the personality test claimed that a very shy person
was in fact sociable, the test would be invalid.
 Reliability and validity are independent of each other. A
measurement may be
 Valid but not reliable.
 Reliable but not valid.
Suppose weighing machine measures weight 2 kg lighter than the actual weight.
The weight it reads will be reliable (the same every time) but will not be valid, since
it is not reading actual weight.

COMBINATION OF RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY

Pilot study (Treece & Treece)
 Pilot study
• The purpose of the pilot study is twofold: to make
improvements in the research project and to detect problems
that must be solved before the major study is attempted.
 Pilot study
• By the time the pilot study is ready to be conducted, the
investigator has completed all of the preliminary steps of the
research process like
– conceptualisation of the problem
– ethical clearance
– ROL
– hypothesis
– sample size ??
– Development of instrument
 Pilot study size
• It should include enough number of subjects to reveal the
misunderstandings that might arise from the wording of the
item
• Usually 10 % of the main study sample size
• It is partially determined by the time available to the
researcher to conduct the total research project
 Confidentiality
• Subjects in the major study should not be contacted ahead of
time, since neither the procedure nor the items should be
discussed with them.
• Avoid contamination
 Pilot study results
• Every detail of the major study should be undertaken in the
pilot study-from administering the instrument, tabulating the
data, analyzing the data and noting any trends in the findings.
• The researcher must decide if the methodology meets the
requirements for testing the hypothesis.
 DEVELOPING A DATA
COLLECTION PLAN IN A
QUANTITATIVE STUDY
 DEVELOPING A DATA
COLLECTION PLAN IN A
QUANTITATIVE STUDY
• Analysing potential biases. Ideally, data that
can help the researcher to identify potential
biases should be collected.
• Understanding subgroup effects
• Interpreting results- methods to reduce stress
• Checking the manipulation-hospital policy on the morale of the
staff
• Obtaining administrative information.
• Administrative information might include
– participant identification numbers
– dates of attempted contact with participants
– dates of actual data collection
– where data collection occurred
– when the data collection session began and ended
– reasons that a potential subject did not participate in the study
– and contact information if the study is longitudinal.
Selecting Types of Measures
Selecting and Developing Instruments
Pretesting the Data Collection Package
• Identifying parts of the instrument package that are difficult for
pre-test subjects to read or understand or that may have been
misinterpreted by them
• Identifying any instruments or questions that participants find
objectionable or offensive
• Determining whether the sequencing of instruments is sensible
• Determining needs for training data collection staff
• Determining if the measures yield data with sufficient variability
 Developing Data Collection
Forms and Procedures
• In some studies, many forms are required:
– forms for screening potential participants to determine their
eligibility
– informed consent forms
– records of attempted contacts with participants
– forms for recording the actual data
– contact information sheets
– and administrative logs for recording the receipt of data.
 Developing Data Collection
Forms and Procedures
• It is prudent to design forms that are attractively formatted,
legible, and inviting to use, especially if they are to be used by
subjects themselves.
• Care should also be taken to design forms to ensure
confidentiality
 IMPLEMENTING A DATA COLLECTION PLAN IN A
QUANTITATIVE STUDY

• Selecting Research Personnel

• Experience. Research staff ideally have had prior experience
collecting data.
• Congruity with sample characteristics. To the extent possible,
data collectors should match study participants with respect to
such characteristics as racial or cultural background and gender
• Unremarkable appearance. Extremes of appearance should be avoided because
participants may react to extremes and alter their behavior or responses
accordingly.
• For example, data collectors should in general not be very old or very young.
• They should not dress extremely casually (e.g., in shorts and tee shirts), nor very
formally (e.g., with elaborate jewelry).
• While on the job, data collectors should never wear anything that conveys their
political, social, or religious views (e.g., political buttons, jewelry with peace
symbols).
 Training Data Collectors
• The agenda for the training should cover the content of the
training manual, elaborating on any portion that is especially
difficult or complex.
• The training usually includes demonstrations of fictitious data
collection sessions, performed either live or on videotape.
• Finally, the training usually involves having the trainees do trial
runs of data collection in front of the trainers to demonstrate
their understanding of the instructions.
 Training Data Collectors
• Personality. Data collectors should be pleasant (but not
effusive), sociable (but not overly talkative or overbearing), and
nonjudgmental (but not apathetic or unfeeling about
participants’ lives).
• Availability. Data collectors should ideally be available for the
entire data collection period to avoid having to recruit and
train new staff.
• ADMINISTRATION OF TOOL/INTERVENTION
• COLLECTION OF DATA