‫ِبْس ِم اللِه الَّر ْح ٰمِن الَّر ِح ْيم‬

‫اللهم صل على محمد و ال محمد‬

Bones & Cartilage
Presented By:
1.Ali Abdullah Alsabah
2.Abdul Malik
3.Shahab Ali
4.Muhammad Ishfaq
5.Muhammad Tanzeel Abbas
6.Adil Usman Ahmad
7.Ali Anees Khan
Presented To:
8. Dr. Safa Noor
 •THE HARD, SUPPORTING FRAMEWORK OF THE BODY IS
KNOWN AS SKELETON.

• THE SKELETON MAINLY CONSISTS OF BONES WHICH ARE

COMPOSED OF MINERALIZED TISSUE AND, THEREFORE, ARE
HARD AND STRONG.

SKELETON • HUMAN SKELETON ALSO CONTAINS CARTILAGES THAT ARE

COMPOSED OF SEMIRIGID CONNECTIVE TISSUE WHICH IS
STRONG AND FLEXIBLE.

•THE HUMAN SKELETON IS DIVIDED INTO TWO PARTS:

•AXIAL SKELETON ( BONES OF HEAD AND TRUNK )
•APPENDICULAR SKELETON ( BONES OF LIMBS )
REGIONAL CLASSIFICATION

• BONES OF AXIAL SKELETON: • BONES OF APPENDICULAR

 This group consists of the bones of SKELETON:
the skull , ossicles of the middle ear,
the rib cage, sternum, and the Bones of upper and lower limbs.
vertebral column
 Regional Distribution of Bones
Axial Bones Appendicular Bones
 Skull: 22 Bones

 Ear Ossicles: 6 Bones  Upper Extremities: 64

Bones
 Hyoid: 1 Bone
 Lower Extremities: 62
 Vertebral Column: 26 Bones
Bones
 Total: 126 Bones
 Ribs: 24 Bones

 Sternum: 1 Bone

 Total: 80 Bones
 Bones
 The bones ( Latin = os ) are made of osseous tissue.
 It consists of connective tissues which contains osteocytes and intercellular substance or
matrix of bone.
 Matrix contains collagen fiber and ground substance.
 The ground substance of osseous tissue contains mineral salts which make the bone hard and
rigid.

Mechanical Physiological

• Provide the rigid framework that supports the body. • Main storehouse and supplier of calcium,
phosphate and magnesium salts.
• Protect vital organs like brain, spinal cord, heart etc.
• Contains marrow which produce RBC.
• Make body movements possible with the help of
muscle and joints.
 Types of Bone Tissue
Compact Bone Tissue Spongy Bone Tissue ( Cancellous Bone )
Hard and dense.  Contains irregular meshwork of
It contains cylinders of calcified bone called intercommunicating bony trabeculae.
Haversian Systems or Osteons.  Spaces of meshwork contains bone
Central canal ( Haversian ) contains blood marrow.
vessels lymph vessels and nerves.  Spongy bone is inside most bones.
The structure of osteons provide great strength  Spongy meshwork is constructed along
 needed to resist stress. the lines of greatest pressure.
 It provides great strength with least
weight.
 DEVELOPMENTAL CLASSIFICATION
MEMBRANE BONES: CARTILAGINOUS MEMBROCARTILAGI
Formed by the BONES: NOUS BONES:
 Formed by the Develop partly in membrane
intramembranous method of
osteogenesis. intramembranous method and partly in cartilage.
Develop in membranous of osteogenesis. E.g. occipital, temporal,
sheets formed by Developed in sphenoid bones of skull,
condensation of mesenchyme Membrocartilaginous mandible, clavicle.
e.g. Skull bones, bones of Bones:
face. reformed models of hyaline
cartilage.
E.g. Bones of ribs,
vertebrate, bones of limbs
 Classification According to size and Shape
Long Bone: Short Bone:
 Cylindrical shaft with two expanded,  Short bones have nearly equal dimensions in length,
smooth, and articular ends. width, and thickness.
 Types:  Irregular shape but designed for stability and support.
 1. Typical Long Bones  Located in wrists (carpal bones) and ankles (tarsal
 Considerable length bones).
 E.g. Upper limb: Humerus, radius, ulna,  Composed of spongy bone with an outer shell of
clavicle, compact bone.
 Lower limb: Femur, tibia, fibula  Limited movement due to their structure.
 2. Miniature Long Bones  Most surface area is covered with cartilage for joint
 Shorter in length formation.
 E.g. Hand: Metacarpals, phalanges  Non-articular areas allow blood vessel entry and
 Foot: Metatarsals, phalanges muscle/ligament attachment.
Flat Bone: Irregular Bone:
 Flat bones are thin, curved, and plate-like  Irregular bones have complex shapes that do
in structure. not fit into other categories.
 Provide protection and broad surfaces for  Composed of spongy bone with red marrow,
muscle attachment. covered by a layer of compact bone.
 E.g. Ribs, sternum, scapulae, and bones of  E.g. Hip bones, Vertebrae, Bones at the base
the skull vault. of the skull (sphenoid, temporal, mastoid, etc.)
 Two layers of compact bone with a thin  Make the skull lighter and enhance voice
layer of spongy bone in between. resonance.
 In skull bones, Outer and inner compact  Clinical significance: Air sinuses are prone to
bone layers are called tables infections.
 The spongy bone in between is called
diploe, which contains red bone marrow.
Sesamoid Bone: Accessory Bone:
 Small bony nodules embedded within a tendon or  Not always present, may develop due to extra
muscle. ossification centers.
 Resemble sesame seeds in shape.  Subtypes:
 Occur regularly in some locations but variably in  Supernumerary Bones
others.  Formed when an extra secondary ossification
 Act as pulleys, providing a smooth surface for center does not fuse with the main bone.
tendons to slide over.  Commonly found in the foot and may be
 Enhance the transfer of muscular forces. mistaken for bone chips on radiographs.
 Protect tendons from trauma, friction, and  E.g. Os vesalianum: Near the tuberosity of
pressure. the metatarsal bone.
 E.g. Patella (kneecap), embedded in the
quadriceps femoris tendon.
Wormian Bones  Functions:
 Small bony islands within sutural joints of  Long bones: Act as levers.
the skull vault.  Short bones: Serve as connectors
 Also called sutural bones. between bones.
 Most commonly found in the lambdoid  Flat bones: Function as protective
suture of the skull. shells.
 Heterotopic Bones
 Develop in muscles or soft tissues instead of
regular skeletal locations.
 E.g. Rider's bones – Develop in the adductor
muscles of horse riders.
 Markings On A Bone
Articular Surfaces:
 These are the parts of bones that
form joints by coming into contact
with other bones.
 They can take the following forms:
1. Condyle
 A rounded protuberance at the end of
a bone.
 Usually occur in pairs.
 E.g. Medial and lateral condyles of
the femur
2. Fossa
 A hollow or depressed region on a
bone.
 E.g. Olecranon fossa of the humerus.
Non-articular Surfaces:
 Serve as attachment points for muscles and ligaments.
 Can take the following forms:
1. Tubercle
 A small, round projection on a bone.
 E.g. Greater and lesser tubercles of the humerus
2. Epicondyle
 A projection on or above a condyle.
 E.g. Humerus: Lateral and medial epicondyles.
3. Fovea
 A small, shallow depression on the bone surface.
 E.g. Fovea capitis, a small pit on the head of the femur
4. Notch
 An indentation on the edge of a bone.
 E.g. Suprascapular notch on superior border of the
scapula.
Grooves and Holes:
 Serve as passageways for blood vessels and nerves.
 Categorized as follows:
1. Fissure
 A narrow cleft or deep groove in a bone or between adjacent bones.
2. Foramen
 A hole in a bone that allows vessels or nerves to pass through.
 E.g. Nutrient foramen of the humerus.
3. Hiatus
 A slit-like gap or cleft in a bone.
 GROSS ANATOMY OF AN ADULT TYPICAL LONG BONE

Structure Wall Composition: Outer covering: Periosteum

Made of compact bone, Fibrous connective tissue layer
Consists of cylindrical shaft known as the cortex. covering the bone.
(diaphysis) Strong enough to Contains blood capillaries,
withstand mechanical lymphatic vessels, and nerves.
Two expanded ends strains. Houses osteoprogenitor cells,
The shaft (diaphysis) which can become osteoblasts
(bone-forming cells).
Hollow, cylindrical in shape.
Central cavity: medullary cavity,
runs through the shaft.
Inner lining: Endosteum The Ends of a Long Bone
Thin connective tissue lining the Composition:
medullary cavity. Mainly made of spongy bone.
Also contains osteoprogenitor cells. Covered by a thin shell of compact bone.
Medullary cavity: Bone Marrow:
Hollow space inside the shaft. Spaces between spongy bone contain red bone marrow
Contains yellow bone marrow (in life).
(composed of blood vessels and fat Articular Surfaces:
cells). Usually smooth and participate in joint formation with
Development: other bones.
The shaft (diaphysis) forms from Covered by hyaline cartilage, known as articular
the primary center of ossification cartilage.
during bone development Development:
Bone ends develop from secondary centers of
ossification
 Epiphysis
DEFINITION
Any part of a bone formed from a secondary center of ossification.In developing bones,
separated by cartilage, but later fuses with the main bone when ossification is complete
Types of Epiphyses Atavistic Epiphyses
Pressure Epiphyses Traction Epiphyses  Represent bones that were
 Located at bone ends  Non-articular and do not form joints. independent in ancestral species
involved in weight  Provide attachment sites for tendons but are now fused in humans.
transmission or movement. and ligaments.  Examples:
 Always articular and  Ossify later than pressure epiphyses.  Coracoid process of scapula
Aberrant Epiphyses
participate in joint  Examples:
Deviations from the normal
formation.  Greater and lesser trochanters of
 Examples: and not always present.
femur Examples:
 Head of femur  Greater and lesser tubercles of
Head of the first metacarpal
 Head of humerus humerus Bases of some metacarpalsa
 Rule of Ossification
General Principle: Upper Limb:
The epiphysis that ossifies first is the last to fuse with the Humerus: Growing end → Upper
diaphysis. end → Nutrient foramen downward
This forms the basis of the Growing End Hypothesis. Ulna: Growing end → Lower end
Growing End Hypothesis → Nutrient foramen upward
One end of a growing long bone grows for a longer period Radius: Follows ulna, foramen
than the other. upward
This end is called the growing end of the bone. Lower Limb:
The growing end corresponds to the epiphysis that Femur: Growing end → Lower end
appeared first. → Nutrient foramen upward
Growth Patterns in Long Bones Tibia: Growing end → Upper end
The nutrient foramina of long bones are directed away from → Nutrient foramen downward
the growing end.
Mnemonic for Memorization
"From the knee I flee, toward the elbow I go."
Nutrient foramina of humerus, radius, and ulna are upward.
Nutrient foramina of femur and tibia are downward.

Exception: The Fibula

Breaks the ossification rule.
Secondary centers of ossification:
Distal end: Appears first (1st year of life).
Proximal end: Appears later (3rd year of life).
Fusion with diaphysis:
Distal end fuses earlier (15 years in girls, 17 years in boys).
Proximal end fuses later (17 years in girls, 19 years in boys).
Nutrient foramen of fibula is directed upward (unlike other bones).
Does not follow the rule: "Flee from the knee" does not apply.
 Blood Vessels of Bones
 Supply to Long Bones
 Arterial Supply
 Blood flow in long bones is centrifugal, meaning it moves from
center to the periphery.
 Each long bone receives blood from four main arterial sources:
 Nutrient Artery (Diaphyseal Artery)
 Enters the bone through the nutrient foramen (near the middle of the
shaft).
 Travels through the nutrient canal into the medullary cavity.
 Divides into ascending and descending branches (medullary arteries)
moving toward the bone ends.
 Medullary arteries further branch into:
 Central branches → supply the bone marrow via medullary
sinusoids.
 Cortical branches → enter Haversian canals to supply bone cortex.
 Metaphyseal Arteries
 Numerous small arteries that arise from major regional arteries near the bone ends.
 Enter the bone through small foramina just inner to the epiphyseal line.
 In adults, these arteries anastomose (connect) with branches of the epiphyseal arteries and medullary
arteries, forming a collateral circulation.
 In growing bones, anastomosis does not occur due to the presence of the epiphyseal cartilage.

 Epiphyseal Arteries
 Derived from arterial anastomoses around joints (formed by branches of major arteries).
 Enter the epiphysis through numerous foramina outer to the epiphyseal line.
 Inside the spongy bone, they form arterial arcades, giving rise to end-arterial loops:
 Most of these loops drain into epiphyseal venous sinusoids.
 Some pierce the compact bone under the articular cartilage, supplying the deep layers of the cartilage.
 In adults, epiphyseal arteries freely anastomose with metaphyseal arteries, but in children, this
connection is absent due to the epiphyseal cartilage barrier.
 Periosteal Arteries
 Derived from muscular arteries supplying
muscles attached to the bone.
 Form plexuses over and within the
periosteum.
 Send small branches into the compact
bone of the shaft, where they:
 Anastomose with cortical capillaries from
the medullary arteries.
 Provide nutrition to the periosteum and the
outer bone cortex.
 Blood Vessels of Bones
 Venous Drainage of Long Bones
 Medullary Sinus & Diaphyseal Vein
 A large venous sinus exists at the center of the medullary cavity.
 Receives blood from medullary sinusoids (which are fed by
medullary arteries).
 The central venous sinus drains blood through the nutrient foramen
via a diaphyseal vein accompanying the nutrient artery.
 Periosteal Venous Plexus
 Exists in the periosteum and drains into venules of the attached
muscles.
 Connected to cortical capillaries, which drain blood into muscular
veins.
 Shows that in the bone shaft, blood moves from the center outward
(centrifugal flow).
 Metaphyseal & Epiphyseal Veins
 Drain the spongy bone of the bone ends.
 Exit through multiple vascular foramina and join neighboring veins.
 Metaphyseal & Epiphyseal Veins
 Drain the spongy bone of the bone ends.
 Exit through multiple vascular foramina and join neighboring veins.

 Blood Supply of Short Bones

 Arterial Supply:
 Numerous fine blood vessels arise from the periosteum.
 These vessels enter through the non-articular surfaces of the bone.
 They supply the compact bone, spongy bone, and bone marrow.
 Venous Drainage:
 One or two veins drain the bone.
 They leave through vascular foramina on the non-articular surfaces
 Blood Supply of Irregular Bones
 Large Irregular (e.g., Scapula, Hip Bones):
 Supplied by many vessels from the periosteal plexus.
 Also receive large nutrient arteries that penetrate the compact bone into the cancellous bone.
 Periosteal and nutrient arteries anastomose freely, ensuring a rich blood supply.
 Venous drainage occurs through veins leaving from the surface of the bone.
 Vertebrae:
 Receive blood from two arteries, one entering the bone close to the base of each transverse process.
 Spongy bone (containing red marrow) is drained by two basivertebral veins.
 These veins converge to a foramen on the posterior surface of the vertebral body.
 Blood Supply of Flat Bones
 Arterial Supply:
 Flat bones of the skull receive blood from numerous fine vessels originating
from the periosteal plexuses.
 Veins are large and thin-walled, running in tortuous canals within the diploe
(spongy layer between the inner and outer compact bone layers).
 Ribs:
 Receive blood from periosteal arteries.
 Also supplied by a nutrient artery that enters just beyond the tubercle.
 Cartilages
 Cartilage (Chondros)
 Cartilage is a strong yet slightly flexible, semirigid connective tissue that can withstand mechanical
stress. It functions as a shock absorber and provides mechanical support in various parts of the body.
 Functions of Cartilage
 Covers articulating bone surfaces to facilitate joint movement.
 Acts as a shock absorber to protect bones.
 Forms a supportive structure in certain body regions.
 Structure of Cartilage
 Composed of chondrocytes (cartilage cells) and matrix.
 The matrix is non-calcified, making it softer and more springy than bone.
 Avascular (lacks blood vessels), so nutrients and oxygen diffuse through the matrix.
 Types of Cartilage
 Cartilage is classified into three types based on matrix composition and fiber content:
1. Hyaline Cartilage
 Most common type of cartilage.
 Appears translucent, pearly bluish-white, or glassy.
 Enclosed by a fibrous covering (perichondrium) (except at joint surfaces).
 Provides support and reduces friction in joints.
 Distribution of Hyaline Cartilage
 Forms the major skeleton of the embryo.
 Found in epiphyseal (growth) plates of growing bones.
 Covers articular (joint-forming) bone ends, enabling smooth movement.
 Reinforces larynx, trachea, and bronchi in the respiratory system.
 Forms costal cartilages at the anterior ends of the ribs, aiding thoracic expansion
during breathing.
 Constitutes the inferior part of the external nose skeleton.
 Fibrocartilage  Elstic Cartilage
 Resilient and pliable, specialized for tension  Highly flexible and elastic, allowing functional
resistance and shock absorption. distortion.
 Lacks perichondrium.  Contains elastic fibers in its matrix.
 Distribution of Fibrocartilage  Distribution of Elastic Cartilage
 Intervertebral discs (between vertebrae).  Auricle (pinna) of the external ear.
 Pubic symphysis (joins two pubic bones).  Cartilaginous part of the auditory tube.
 Labra (rims) of joint sockets (e.g., glenoid labrum  Epiglottis of the larynx (prevents food from
in the shoulder and acetabular labrum in the hip). entering the trachea).
 Menisci of the knee joint and articular discs of
certain joints.
 Sesamoid fibrocartilage in some tendons (e.g.,
tendon of tibialis posterior muscle).
 Bone Injury And Repair
 Fracture
 A fracture is a break in the continuity of a bone.
 It is classified into:
 Closed (Simple) Fracture: No open wound in the skin.
 Open (Compound) Fracture: The fracture is associated with an external wound.
 Healing of a Fracture
 Formation of Blood Clot (Hematoma)
 Bone injury causes bleeding from damaged blood vessels.
 A blood clot (hematoma) forms around the fracture site.
 Formation of Granulation Tissue
 Blood capillaries, fibroblasts, and osteoprogenitor cells invade the blood clot.
 A new loose connective tissue called granulation tissue is formed.
 Fibrocartilage Callus Formation
 Some osteoprogenitor cells differentiate into chondroblasts.
 These chondroblasts form hyaline cartilage within the connective tissue.
 A fibrocartilage callus forms, filling the fracture site and surrounding the bone ends.
 Bony Callus Formation
 Osteoprogenitor cells differentiate into osteoblasts.
 Osteoblasts start forming bone tissue, gradually replacing the fibrocartilage callus with bony
callus.
 Bone Remodeling and Final Repair
 The bony callus is replaced by mature bone, restoring bone continuity.
 Excess bone at the fracture site is resorbed.
 The external contour of the bone returns to its normal shape.
 Bone Development
 Development of Bones (Osteogenesis)  1. Intramembranous Osteogenesis  Examples:
 Process by which bones develop, called  Process:  Flat bones of the
osteogenesis (ossification).  Immature mesenchyme tissue forms skull (support
 In the embryo, the primitive skeleton is layers (membranes). and protect the
composed of fibrous membranes or  Osteoblasts lay down osteoid brain).
(unmineralized bone matrix).  Bones of the face
hyaline cartilage.
 Two types of bone formation:  Osteoid mineralizes quickly with calcium and clavicle.
 Intramembranous Osteogenesis phosphate crystals.
 Intracartilaginous (Endochondral)  Alkaline phosphatase enzyme aids in
Osteogenesis mineralization.
 Characteristics:
 Direct and quick method of bone
formation.
 Bones formed are called membrane
bones.
 2. Intracartilaginous (Endochondral) Osteogenesis
 Process:
 A cartilaginous model of the bone is first formed.
 Bone formation begins at the center (primary center of ossification).
 Secondary ossification centers appear in the bone ends later.
 Secondary ossification centers appear at different times (one end forms first, the
other later).
 Important Note:
 Hyaline cartilage is not converted into bone but completely replaced by bone tissue.