Motivation

Motivation is defined as processes that account for an

individual’s intensity, direction and persistence of
effort toward attaining a goal.
Nee Goal Oriented Satisfaction of
d Behavior Need

Early Theories of Motivation

Contribution of Robert Owen:
Owen is considered to be paternalistic in his view. His
view was that people were similar to machines. A
machine that is looked after properly, cared for and
maintained well , performs efficiently, reliably and

1
Lastingly, similarly people are likely to be
more efficient if they are taken care of.
Jeremy Bentham’s “The Carrot and
the Stick Approach”:
Bentham’s view was that all people are
self-interested and are motivated by the
desire to avoid pain and find pleasure. Any
worker will work only if the reward is big
enough, or the punishment sufficiently
unpleasant.

Master in Public Policy & Governance Program 2

Hierarchy of Needs Theory
It is probably safe to say that the most well
known theory of motivation is Abraham
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. Maslow
hypothesized that within every human being,
there exists a hierarchy of five needs.
1. Physiological: the need for food, drink,
shelter, sex and other bodily needs.


Master in Public Policy & Governance Program 3

2. Safety and security: the need for freedom
from threat, i.e., The security from threatening
events or surroundings.
3. Social: the need for friendship, affiliation,
interaction and love.
4. Esteem: the need for self-esteem and for
respect from others.
5. Self-actualization: the need to fulfill oneself
by maximizing the use of abilities, skills and
potential (Competence and achievement).

4
Theory X and Theory Y
Douglas McGregor proposed two distinct views of human
beings: one basically negative, labeled Theory X and the
other basically positive, labeled Theory Y.

Theory X assumptions
1. People inherently dislike work and, when
possible, will avoid it.
2. They have little ambition, tend to shun
responsibility and prefer to be directed.
3. Above all, they want security.
4. In order to get them to attain organizational
objectives it is necessary to use coercion,
control and threats of punishment.
5
Theory Y assumptions

1. Work is a natural phenomenon and if the conditions are

favorable people will not only accept responsibility,
they will seek it.
2. If people are committed to organizational objectives
they will exercise self-direction and self-control.
3. Commitment is a function of the rewards associated
with goal attainment.
4. The capacity for creativity in solving organizational
problems is widely distributed in the population and the
intellectual potentialities of the average human being
are only partially utilized.

6
Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory
Psychologist Fredrick Herzberg proposed the two-factor
theory- also called motivation-hygiene theory.
1) Hygiene/dissatisfiers/extrinsic conditions
The factors that prevent dissatisfaction are
called hygiene factors. The presence of
these conditions to the satisfaction of the
employee doesn't necessarily motivate him,
but their absence results in dissatisfaction.
2) Motivators/satisfiers/ intrinsic condition
Motivators have a positive effect on job
satisfaction. The absence of these
conditions doesn't prove highly
dissatisfying. But when present, they build
strong levels of motivation that result in 7
Clayton P. Alderfer's ERG theory

Alderfer identified three groups of core

needs: existence, relatedness, and growth
(thus ERG theory). The existence needs are
concerned with survival (physiological well-
being). The relatedness needs stress the
importance of interpersonal, social
relationships. The growth needs are
concerned with the individual's intrinsic
desire for personal development. Figure
shows how these three groups of needs are
related to the Maslow and Herzberg
categories. Obviously they are very close, but
the ERG needs do not have strict lines of
demarcation,Master in Public Policy & Governance Program
Herzberg's Maslow's Alderfer's
Two Factors Hierarchy of needs ERG Needs
SELF-ACTUALIZATION

MOTIVATORS ESTEEM GROWTH

Self
Others

LOVE
RELATEDNESS

SAFETY
HYGIENE
FACTORS EXISTENCE

PHYSIOLOGICAL

Figure: Relationship among Alderfer's ERG needs, Maslows five-level hierarchy, and Herzberg's tw
Contemporary Theories of Motivation
Cognitive Evaluation Theory
 Historically, motivation theorists generally assumed
that intrinsic rewards such as interesting work were
independent of extrinsic rewards such as high pay. But
cognitive evaluation theory suggest otherwise.
 It argues that when extrinsic rewards are used by
organizations as payoffs for superior performance, the
intrinsic rewards, which are derived from individuals
doing what they like, are reduced.
 If cognitive evaluation theory is correct, it would
make sense to make an individual’s pay noncontingent
on performance in order to avoid decreasing intrinsic
motivation.
10
 Cognitive Evaluation Theory

As per these theory a shift from external

rewards to internal rewards results into
motivation. It believes that even after the
stoppage of external stimulus, internal
stimulus survives. It relates to the pay
structure in the organization. Instead of
treating external factors like pay, incentives,
promotion etc and internal factors like
interests, drives, responsibility etc,
separately, they should be treated as
contemporary to each other. The cognition is
to be such that even when external
motivators are not there the internal
Master in Public Policy & Governance Program 11
 Contribution of Elton Mayo
The work of Elton Mayo is famously
known as “Hawthorne Experiments.”
He conducted behavioral
experiments at the Hawthorne Works
of the American Western Electric
Company in Chicago. He made some
illumination experiments, introduced
breaks in between the work
performance and also introduced
refreshment during the pause’s.
Master in Public Policy & Governance Program 12
Contribution of Elton Mayo
Conclusion of his research:
Motivation is a very complex subject. It was
not only about pay, work condition and
morale but also included psychological and
social factors.
1. People are motivated by more than pay
and conditions.
2. The need for recognition and a sense of
belonging are very important.
3. Attitudes towards work are strongly
influenced by the group.

Master in Public Policy & Governance Program 13

Lyman W. Porter and Edward E. Lawler
Expectancy Theory
Similar to Vroom’s theory Porter and Lawler
concluded that an individual’s motivation to
complete a task is affected by the reward
they expect to receive for completing the
task. Additional aspect: Reward
Intrinsic rewards: Positive feelings, i.e.,
satisfaction, sense of achievement.
Extrinsic rewards: Emanating from outside,
i.e., bonus, commission and pay increases.
They said that an individual’s view regarding
the attractiveness and fairness of the rewards
will affect motivation.
Master in Public Policy & Governance Program 14
Mcclelland’s Theory of Needs
The types of motivating needs:
Need for power (Power positions or Key
positions)
Need for affiliation (Social recognition and
affiliation provides them motivation)
Need for achievement (Driven by the
challenge of success and the fear of failure).

Master in Public Policy & Governance Program 15

J. Stacey Adam’s Equity Theory:
People are motivated by their beliefs about
reward structure as being fair or unfair,
relative to the inputs.
Out come by a person = Outcome by another
person
Input by a person = Input by another
person

Balance and Imbalance in the mind of

individual
Rewards not equitable (demotivation)
Rewards that are equitable (normal reaction)
Rewards more than equitable ( demotivation) 16
Master in Public Policy & Governance Program
Goal-Setting Theory
 A theory that says that specific and difficult goals,
with feedback, lead to higher performance

But why are people motivated by difficult goals?

Difficult goals lead us to discover strategies that help
us perform the job or task more effectively. If we have
to struggle for a way to solve a difficult problem, we
often think of a better way to go about it.

People also do better when they get feedback on how

well they are progressing towards their goals.

17
Implementing Goal-Setting
A more systematic way to utilize goal setting is with a
management by objectives program. Management by
Objectives (MBO) emphasizes participatively set
goals that are tangible, verifiable and measureable.

Four ingredients are common to MBO programs:

1. Goal specificity
2. Participation in decision making ( including
participation in the setting of goals or objectives)
3. An explicit time period and
4. Performance feedback
18
Valence/Expectancy Theory
Currently, one of the most widely accepted
explanations of motivation is Victor Vroom’s
valence/ expectancy theory.
Expectancy theory argues that the strength
of a tendency to act in a certain way depends
on the strength of an expectation that the act
will be followed by a given outcome and on
the attractiveness of that outcome to the
individual. The theory focuses on three
relationships. (Add Figure)
1. Effort-performance relationship;
2. Performance and reward relationship;
3. Rewards and personal goals relationship.
Motivation-action-results 19
We present these three relationships as questions
employees need to answer in the affirmative if their
motivation is to be maximized.
1. First, if I give a maximum effort, will it be
recognized in my performance appraisal?

2. Second, if I get a good performance appraisal, will it

lead to organizational reward?

3. Finally, if I am rewarded, are the rewards ones that I

find personally attractive?

20