Computer Networks

Computer Network

A computer network is defined as the

interconnection of 2 or more independent
computers or/and peripherals.
 Network

Source Destination
 Need of Networks
– Communicate and collaborate
– Share information
– Share resources
– Sharing computer files and disk space
– Sharing high-quality printers
– Access to common fax machines
– Access to common modems
– Multiple access to the Internet
 Classification of Networks
1. Local Area Networks (LANs) - a computer
network covering a small geographic area, like
a home, office, or group of buildings. Typically
within 5-mile radius.
2. Metropolitan Area Networks (MANs)- are
large computer networks usually spanning a
city. (within 30 miles)
3. Wide-Area Networks (WANs) - any network
whose communications links cross
metropolitan, regional, or national boundaries.
 Network Topology

The way in which the computers are

interconnected together is known as
TOPOLOGY.
 Types of topologies

• Physical topology
• Logical topology
 Types of physical
topologies

• Bus/Linear
• Star
• Ring
• Tree
• Mesh
 Linear or bus topology

• Consists of a main cable, known as

backbone cable, with a terminator at
each end .
• All nodes (file server, workstations,
and peripherals) are connected to the
cable.
• Ethernet and LocalTalk networks use
bus topology.
 Advantages of Bus
Topology
• Easy to connect a computer or peripheral
to a linear bus.
• Requires less cable length.
• Easy to extend.
• If one node of the N/W is faulty, the N/W
can still remain working.
 Disadvantages of Bus
Topology
• Entire network shuts down if there is a
break in the main cable.
• Terminators are required at both ends of
the backbone cable.
• Difficult to identify the problem if the entire
network shuts down.
• Not meant to be used as a stand-alone
solution in a large building.
 Star topology

• A star topology is designed with each node (file

server, workstations, and peripherals) connected
directly to a central network hub.
• Data on a star network passes through the hub
before continuing to its destination.
• The hub manages and controls all functions of
the network.
• It also acts as a repeater for the data flow.
 Advantages of Star
Topology
• Easy to install.
• No disruptions to the network other than
connecting or removing devices.
• Easy to detect faults and to remove parts.
 Disadvantages of Star
Topology
• Requires more cable length than a bus
topology.
• If the hub fails, nodes attached are
disabled.
• More expensive than bus topology
because of the cost of the hub.
 Tree Topology

• A tree topology combines characteristics

of bus and star topologies.
• It consists of groups of star-configured
workstations connected to a bus backbone
cable.
• Tree topologies allow for the expansion of
an existing network.
 Advantages of a Tree
Topology
• Point-to-point wiring for individual
segments.
• Supported by several hardware and
software venders.
 Disadvantages of Tree
Topology
• Overall length of each segment is limited
by the type of cabling used.
• If the backbone line breaks, the entire
segment goes down.
• More difficult to configure than other
topologies.
 Ring topology

• Is a type of computer network configuration

where each network computer and device are
connect to each other forming A large circle.
• Data is divided into packets when transmitted.
• Packet is sent around the ring until it reaches
its final destination.
 Advantages of ring
topology
• Requires lesser amount of cable and there
are not much of installation problems
• All stations have equal access
 Disadvantages of ring
topology

• Failure of one computer may impact others

• Data transfer is slow
 Mesh topology

• It requires that every terminal should be

attached to each other.
• All the computers must have adequate
number of interfaces for the connections to
be made.
• Because of this requirement the
installations is somewhat difficult.
• The length of cable required is quite higher
as compared to other topologies.
 Advantages of mesh
topology
• Ease of troubleshooting.
• Data transfer is faster.
 Disadvantages of mesh
topology
• uses a lot of cabling.
• Complex
• Most expensive topology
 Considerations When
Choosing a Topology
• Money. A linear bus network may be the least
expensive way to install a network; you do not
have to purchase concentrators.
• Length of cable needed. The linear bus
network uses shorter lengths of cable.
• Future growth. With a star topology, expanding
a network is easily done by adding another
concentrator.
• Cable type. The most common cable in schools
is unshielded twisted pair, which is most often
used with star topologies.
 Transmission Technology

Two types of transmission technologies are

there:
1. Broadcast Network
Single communication channel is shared by all
the machines in the network.
 Transmission Technology

2. Point to Point Network

Data is routed directly from source machine to
destination machine directly.

Dedicated link
 Routing

• When data is to be transmitted between

two remote machines using intermediate
machines, certain routing techniques have
to be applied.
• The intermediate machines may be:
1. Gateway
2. Hub
3. Router
4. Repeater
5. Bridge
 Gateway
• A gateway is a network point that acts as an
entrance to another network.
• Acts as a bridge between two networks so that
data can be transferred between a number of
computers.
• In enterprises, the gateway is the computer
that routes the traffic from a workstation to the
outside network that is serving the Web pages.
• In homes, the gateway is the ISP that connects
the user to the internet.
• For example, when you send an e-mail to a
friend or when you log in to a Web site, there is
a gateway that allows the connection take
place.
 Hub
• A common connection point for devices in a
network.
• Hubs are commonly used to connect
segments of a LAN.
• A hub contains multiple ports.
• When a packet arrives at one port, it is
copied to the other ports so that all
segments of the LAN can see all packets
 Router
• A router is a device that forwards data
packets along networks.
• A router is connected to at least two
networks.
• Routers are located at gateways.
• Routers use headers and forwarding tables
to determine the best path for forwarding
the packets.
• They use protocols to communicate with
each other and configure the best route
between any two hosts.
 Switch
• In networks, a device that filters and
forwards packets between LAN segments.
• LANs that use switches to join segments are
called switched LANs.
 Repeater
• Repeaters are used in transmission systems
to regenerate signals distorted by
transmission loss.
• Analog repeaters frequently can only amplify
the signal while digital repeaters can
reconstruct a signal to near its original
quality.
 Bridge
• A device that connects two local-area
networks (LANs), or two segments of the
same LAN that use the same protocol is
known as bridge.
 More Concepts…
• Network protocols.
• Layering.
• Network/protocol architecture.
 Network Protocols

• A communication protocol is a set of

rules that specify the format and
meaning of messages exchanged
between computers across a network.
• A set of related protocols that are
designed for compatibility are called
protocol suite.
 Human and Computer
Protocols
Human Protocol Computer Protocol
Web client
Hi open
connection
Hi
OK Web server
Got the
time? send me data
2:00
<data>
time
 Protocol Architecture
• Task of communication broken up into
modules
• For example file transfer could use three
modules
– File transfer application
– Communication service module
– Network access module
 Layers
• Layers are the different components that
need to be designed/implemented when
designing/implementing networks.
• Each layer responsible for a set of
functions.
• Top layer relies on services provided by
bottom layer.
• Layer makes it service available to higher
layer through an interface.
 Layering

• Building complex systems is hard!

– Approach: “Divide and conquer”.
– Split job into smaller jobs, or layers.
• Analogy to other fields.
– Building a house: digging, foundation,
framing, etc.
– Car assembly line…
• Basic idea: each step dependent on the
previous step but does not need to be aware of
how the previous step was done.
 Analogy: Air Travel
• The problem: air travel.
• Decomposed into series of steps:

Arrival at airport Departure from airport

Check-in Baggage claim

Boarding Deplane

Takeoff Landing

Traveling
 More on the air travel analogy…

Arrival Departure
Departing airport

Arriving airport
Check-in Baggage claim

Boarding Deplane

Takeoff Landing

intermediate air traffic sites

Airplane routing Airplane routing

Traveling
 A Three Layer Model

• Application Layer
• Transport Layer
• Network Access Layer
 Network Access Layer
• Exchange of data between the computer
and the network
• Sending computer provides address of
destination
• May invoke levels of service
• Dependent on type of network used (LAN,
packet switched etc.)
 Transport Layer
• Reliable data exchange
• Independent of network being used
• Independent of application
 Application Layer
• Support for different user applications
• e.g. e-mail, file transfer
 Layered Protocol Design
• Layering model is a solution to the problem of
complexity in network protocols
• The model divides the network protocols into
layers, each of which solves part of the
network communication problem
– Each layer has its own protocol!
• Each layer implements a service to the layer
above
– Relying on services provided by the layers
below.
 Network/Protocol Architecture
• Set of layers, what their functions are, the
services each of them provide, and the
interfaces between them.
• A.k.a, protocol architecture or protocol
stack.
• Examples:
– ISO-OSI 7 layer architecture.
– TCP-IP architecture (Internet).
 Protocol Data Units (PDU)
• At each layer, protocols are used to
communicate.
• At the source, control information is added
to user data at each layer, a.k.a.,
encapsulation.
• At the receiver, control information is
stripped off at each layer going up the
stack, a.k.a., decapsulation.
 Example 1: ISO OSI
Architecture
• ISO: International Standards Organization
• OSI: Open Systems Interconnection.
Application
Presentation
Session
Transport
Network
Data link
Physical
 ISO Model
• Layer 7: Application
– Application-specific protocols (e.g. ftp, http, smtp)
• Layer 6: Session
− establish sessions between machines.
• Layer 5: Presentation
− performs proper co ordination between machines
• Layer 4: Transport
– Delivery of data between computers (end-to-end).
• Layer 3: Network
– Data routing across a network.
• Layer 2: Data Link
– Reliable transmission over physical medium.
• Layer 1: Physical
- Transmission of bits between two nodes.
 Example 2: TCP/IP
Architecture
• Model employed by the Internet.

TCP/IP Application ISO OSI

Application Presentation
Session
Transport
Transport
Internet
Network
Network
Access Data link
Physical
Physical
TCP/IP Protocol
Architecture
 Routing Technologies

• Computer Networks may use the

following routing technologies:
1. Circuit Switching
2. Packet Switching
3. Message Switching
 Circuit Switching

• A physical circuit is established

between two machines.
• Once the connection is established,
the data transfer takes place and
then the connection is released.
• The data transfer rate is high but
error prone.
 Packet Switching

• Data is divided into small, fixed size packets.

• Each packet contains the address of
destination.
• All the intermediate machines inspect the
address and route it to the right machine.
• If any packet is missing, the destination
machine can request the source machine to
retransmit it.
 Message Switching

• Message as a whole is transmitted.

• Each message contains the address of the
destination.
• Message switching N/W is “Store and
Forward” N/W.
• Once the message arrives at the intermediate
machine, it is stored in it completely and
transmitted when the line is free.